Arab-Israeli Conflict

The Arab League

October 1945 Britain helped form the Arab League
The first members were Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia
Its purpose was to prevent Soviet progress in the region
Others joined as they became independent
By 1983 new members included Sudan, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Oman, South Yemen, Kuwait and Bahrain
The 36 million Arabs had a common language and culture
Most were Muslims and hated colonial rule
They had similar economic problems
Even oil rich states had unequal distribution of wealth among rich and poor
But above all else they hated Israel

Palestine 1923-47

British Mandate from 1923
Promises made during World War I led to Arab expectations
Also led to Jewish hopes for a homeland
Theodore Herzl (Viennese Jew) started the Zionist Movement
1896 First Zionist Congress – he proposed a national home for the world’s Jews
The Balfour Declaration seemed to be a British commitment to this
1920s 10,000 Jews a year settled in Palestine
Arabs alarmed – saw this as more Western imperialism
1922 Churchill said it was a promise of a national Jewish home not a state
1929 Arab riots against the 100,000 Jewish settlers
Jews protected themselves with the Haganah (their own security force)

1930s

1933 Britain restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine to appease the Arabs
Led to Jewish riots
1933 Jewish demand for entry to Palestine increased (Hitler came to power)
The figures:
- 1936 – 60,000 Jews went to Palestine
- 1937 – 400,000 Jews living in Palestine
- 1939 – 600,000 facing a million Arabs
1937 – the Arab Revolt led to the Peel Commission
This reported that the Mandate could not work
Also said Palestine should be divided
Arabs refused the idea of a Jewish state

World War II

Nazi persecution of Jews but British restricted numbers fleeing to Palestine
Thousands entered illegally

Post World War II

1945-7 much sympathy for Jews world-wide
British Foreign Minister Bevin tried to restrict Jewish entry to Palestine to please Arabs
Arabs angry though and attacked Jewish settlements
Haganah defended these
Jewish terrorist gangs were formed e.g. Irgun and the Stern Gang
Used bombs and gunmen against army posts, police stations and government buildings
President Truman of USA was fighting an election and asked Britain to admit more Jews
Bevin now handed the problem to the UN
14 may 1948 British forces left
The Jews immediately announced the formation of the state of Israel
UN suggested partition – rejected by the Arabs

First Arab-Israeli War

Fighting began before the British left
Jordan sent in the Arab Legion under British general Glubb
Egypt joined in led by Nasser and Neguib
Syria attacked too
The Jews appealed for world help but little came
UN officials tried to end the fighting but failed
Count Bernadotte was murdered by Jewish terrorists (September 1948)
The Arabs failed to defeat the Jews
February 1949 the War ended
Israel gained more territory than had been allotted to it by the UN proposals of 1948
A million Arabs fled from Palestine to live in refugee camps in Jordan, Syria and Egypt

Reasons for Arab Defeat

Their leaders were at odds with one another
Each wanted an advantage from the war
Their armies lacked a co-ordinated plan
So the Jews could defeat them one after the other
Their armies were badly led
The Jews had the technical skills of British-trained officers
The Jews had no option but to fight to the bitter end

1949-56

A UN commission helped end the war
The UN Truce Supervisory Commission was needed to police the new frontiers
Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan
Israel claimed the Gaza Strip and only tolerated Egyptian occupation of the Strip for the time being
Arab terrorists made frequent attacks on the Jews
The Jews attacked camps harbouring the terrorists
Russia had supported Israel in the hope of securing a base in the region
When Israel proved to be America’s client, Russia backed the Arabs and supplied them with arms

Egypt under Nasser

Gamel Abdel Nasser – an army officer
Fought against Israel in 1948-9
July 1952 was one of the coup leaders that overthrew King Farouk
Deputy Prime Minister to General Neguib 1952-4
He overthrew and replaced Neguib

Nasser’s Ambitions

The Egyptian leader who would free Egypt from last remnants of British control
He negotiated the withdrawal of the 90,000 troops in the Canal Zone (1954-5)
As a socialist leader who improved living standards in Egypt
Land reforms – land taken from rich to give to the peasants
Social reforms in education, health and housing
With foreign aid build the Aswan Dam to control the Nile and help irrigation
Unite all Arabs in an Arab Union
Formed the United Arab Republic with Syria 1958 (broke up 1961)
It was reformed (and to include Iraq) in 1963 – then broke up again

Reactions to Nasser

His ambitions were viewed with alarm by other Arab leaders e.g. Kings of Iraq, Jordan and Saudi Arabia
He then helped General Kassem to overthrow and murder King Feisal of Iraq (1958)
But he then rivalled him for the leadership of the left-wing Arab future
A Nasser-led Arab Union was feared by US, France and Britain
Also feared a Russian-controlled Middle Eastern Union
France was fighting a war in Algeria – Nasser was helping these and he gave them shelter when they fled

The Baghdad Pact

1954 Turkey and Pakistan formed mutual defence pact
1955 pro-Western King Feisal of Iraq joined too
1956 Britain and Persia joined
USA gave economic aid to its members
1958 Iraq and Jordan formed anti-Nasser Arab Federation
West hoped King Hussein of Jordan would join the Pact
Nasser feared this and put pressure on him while bringing about the fall of Feisal of Iraq
Jordan never joined the Pact
1959 West thought they had created a powerful bloc
It was first called the Baghdad Pact
Then renamed the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

Suez Crisis 1956

US and Great Britain gave Nasser aid to build the Aswan Dam
1955 he asked for more aid to buy weapons
US refused – he wouldn’t be able to afford to pay back both sorts of aid
Also, US feared he would attack Israel
Russia and Czechoslovakia supplied the arms
1956 US cut aid for the dam and forced Great Britain to do same
July 1956 Nasser nationalised the Canal claiming that the revenues from the Canal would pay for the Dam
Eden (Great Britain’s Prime Minister) believed he had US support to overthrow Nasser
France (part owner of the Canal) was angry about Nasser’s support for the Algerian rebels
Israel angry about his support for terrorist attacks in the Gaza Strip

Second Arab-Israeli War 1956

Great Britain, France and Israel agreed a joint attack on Egypt
October 1956 Israel attacked the Gaza Strip
Occupied most of Sinai Peninsula
November 1956 Great Britain and France called on Egypt and Israel to withdraw their forces from the Canal Zone
This would mean only an Egyptian withdrawal – and from Egyptian territory
Nasser refused – so Great Britain and France attacked
Egypt’s air force destroyed on the ground
Troops landed at Alexandria to capture the Canal
US and Russia condemned Great Britain and France’s actions
They withdrew their forces, but only after the Arab countries threatened to cut off oil supplies
Nasser sank ships to block the Canal
Great Britain and France were made to appear as aggressors and failures
It led to many Afro-Asian states turning to Russia for leadership

1956-67

UN peacekeeping force sent to clear the Canal and to keep the peace
It also had a post at Sharm el Sheik to ensure Israeli ships could access the port of Eilat
Terrorist attacks on Israel from Gaza continued
Nasser’s diplomatic victory made him more popular in the Arab world
He was now more anti-Israel than before
Syria (his partner in the UAR) shelled Israel from the Golan Heights
1957 the US fleet arrive to support the pro-Western regime in Lebanon where pro-Nasser riots were taking place
1958 pro-Western King Feisal of Iraq assassinated and left-wing pro-Russian government took over
1959 general Kassem took Iraq out of Baghdad Pact
Egypt supported local nationalists in their struggle against British influence in the Gulf, Aden and the South Arabian Federation

Third Arab- Israel War (6 Day War) 1967

Spring 1967 increase in terrorist activity led by PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization)
Syria increased shelling from Golan Heights
Syria had left UAR 1961 and was outbidding Egypt in demand for an Arab attack on Israel
Iraq under Kassem was claiming to be more socialist than Egypt
Iraq now claimed to be the leading Arab state
Saudi Arabia was helping anti-Nasser forces in Yemen and claimed leadership of less radical Arab states
Nasser decided to act to restore his position as main Arab leader
Jordan under pressure from PLO signed a military pact with Nasser (4^th June 1967)

The Fighting

Moshe Dayan became Minister of Defence
He believed attack was the best of defence
5^th June 1967 Israel attacked the Arab airfields
Israeli army drove Egyptians back across the Sinai
Also advanced to the River Jordan
Defeated the Syrians on Golan Heights
June 8^th Jordan surrendered
June 11^th Syria and Egypt surrendered
Israel refused UN plea for a return to the old borders
Israel took all land up to the east bank of the Canal
Syria was partly occupied including Golan Heights
West Bank of the Jordan remained in Israeli hands
Clashes continued until 1970 when UN arranged a cease-fire

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

This contained groups who aimed to destroy Israel
Yasser Arafat was main leader and spokesman
More militant groups followed their own line
1960 Kassem of Iraq formed the Palestine Army
PLO most active in Jordan
1960s they forced Hussein to abandon his moderate line and ally with Nasser
PLO made frequent raids into Israel
Also hijacked planes and forced them to land in Jordan where they were blown up
1972 they gunned down 100 people at Lydda airport Tel Aviv
1972 Munich Olympics the Black September Group of the PLO kidnapped Israelis
These were killed in the ensuing gunfight with the German police
Israel made reprisal raids on terrorist camps
September 1970 King Hussein turned on PLO when it tried to overthrow him
PLO then found most help in Syria
1972 Sadat, Nasser’s successor in Egypt sent Russian advisors home
This angered Syria and caused another rift in the Arab world

Fourth Arab-Israeli War of Yom Kippur October 6 1973

Egypt wanted return of Sinai
Syria wanted Golan Heights
They agreed to attack Israel
October 6^th is a Jewish Holy Day (Yom Kippur)
On that day Syria attacked Golan Heights
Helped by Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia
Egypt attacked across the Canal and broke through the Israeli Bar-Lev line
The Arab attack was successful at first
Russia supplied them with aid and technical help
USA reluctant to help Israel at first
Then they sent planes and artillery and Israel drove back the Arabs
The Syrians were driven back to Damascus
Israel also captured the west bank of the Canal
The Egyptian army on the east bank and in Port Said was surrounded
Cease-fire was arranged by US Secretary of state Kissinger and UN mediators
Israel kept her gains in Sinai and Golan Heights

OPEC

OPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Founded 1961
This was largely at the initiative of Venezuela
Its first aim was to help oil producing countries in negotiations with oil multi-national companies who developed each country’s oilfields but only paid them a small amount
By 1972 foreign oil companies had lost control of the industry
They had to deal with well-educated and able ministers
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya, Bahrain and Iraq were the leading Arab members of OPEC
The Arabs having failed in war decided to use OPEC in their struggle
1972-3 raised oil prices
By 1974 they were four times higher than 1972

Result

Flow of money to the Arab states
Western inflation rose
Slow in world trade due to balance of payments problems

The oil weapon and divisions

The Arabs used their oil as a weapon
Threatened to cut off oil to any country supporting Israel (Holland was first)
Arabs were divided though
The royalists e.g. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait were not as militant as anti-monarchist Libya wanted
Iraq then went to war Iran – so it was short of oil

The Lebanon 1975-6

Christians and Muslims lived in uneasy peace
They shared political power
1975 right-wing Christian groups tried to break the power of left-wing Muslim groups
Serious fighting – capital Beirut devastated
1976 PLO had supported Lebanese Muslims
They needed a new home after being thrown out of Jordan
Syrian and other Arab forces entered to restore peace
The Syrians fought the PLO while the Christians looked on
Israel kept a watchful eye on proceedings

1976 PLO and Entebbe

June 1976 PLO terrorists hi-jacked an Air France plane containing many Jewish passengers and forced it to go to Entebbe in Uganda
President Amin allowed the terrorists to use the old airport as a prison for the Jewish hostages
They demanded the release of Palestinian guerrillas held in Israeli and other prisons
Israel sent a rescue operation – an airborne force which rescued nearly all the captives, killed most of the hijackers and the Ugandan guards placed round the airport

Peace 1977

October 1977President Sadat flew to Jerusalem
He met Prime Minister Begin of Israel there
He addressed the Knesset (Israeli Parliament)
Sadat suggested the two countries make peace
Begin then visited Cairo
Sadat was condemned by the Russians, most Arab countries and PLO for betrayal
Sadat couldn’t arrange a total peace – no other Arab state would agree
So just Egypt and Israel made peace
Israel withdrew from Sinai
Egypt allowed free access to Eilat through the Gulf Aqaba
Israel promised to eventually withdraw from Gaza
Religious fanatics and Israeli nationalists were opposed to the settlement

Lebanon 1976-86

Internal divisions e.g. Christians had at least 12 different groups

Divisions among the Christians

Religious divisions

Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic
Most important were the Maronites

Family Divisions

Certain families were accepted as leaders of some Christian groups e.g. the Chamoun, Franijeh, and Gemayel
These groups had their own private armies and bases
So part of East Beirut was known as Marounistan (Maronite area)
They fought each other for political and territorial power
Made allies to aid them e.g. Muslims, Syrians, PLO, Israel
Also turned against ally if this suited their purposes

Divisions among the Muslims

Shia Muslims believe that when the Prophet Mohammad died in 632 his son-in-law, Ali, became his successor
Sunni Muslims (the majority) believe that the Prophet didn’t name a successor
They say that Muslims as a whole have the right to choose a successor at any one time
The Druzes are a small group who broke away from mainstream Islam
They have a ‘secret book’, read only by chosen leaders
Live mainly in mountain villages – so the region is often called ‘the Druze Mountains’
They are disliked by Sunnis and Shias and have left-wing politics
They are led by the Jumblatt family
Some left-wing Muslims accept the leadership of Syria
Others fear a communist takeover

Outside Influence

Until 1975 there was an uneasy peace between the various groups
Political power was shared
Each group had a power base and methods of raising funding
Many had their own ports through which to channel drug trafficking for funds
The peace was broken in 1975 and PLO tried to take advantage in 1976
Dominant Christian groups accepted help from Syria and Syria intervened to break the power of Yasser Arafat and PLO
Led to civil war 1976-1982

The Civil War

Christian groups fought each other for control
1978 the heads of several leading Christian families were assassinated by other Christian groups
Lebanese forces fell apart as members joined the various Christian and Muslim camps
Israel attacked PLO and other bases in southern Lebanon
This was to stop raids into Israel
1976 launched invasion of Lebanon but withdrew on US pressure
1981 Syria defeated the Christian armies

1982 Israeli Invasion

1981 new government formed by Begin
Contained hard-liners e.g. Sharon the defence minister
Some wanted to wipe out bases used to attack Israel
Others wanted to annex southern Lebanon
Feared that Syrian dominated Lebanon would threaten Israel

1982-3 War

Israeli forces reached Beirut
Were helped by some Christian forces who wanted to remove Syrian forces
PLO was defeated by Israel with Syrian connivance – they made little effort to help
PLO forces driven out
Some went Algeria and Jordan
Internal PLO struggle followed
Some condemned Arafat who wanted a greater struggle against Israel
He knew that a deal with Israel was needed to get recognition for the Palestinians
1983 Arafat and PLO forces returned to Lebanon
They then has a PLO civil war – Syria defeated Arafat
Arafat left to find a new home in Egypt
Israel and Syria now fought for control of northern Lebanon
Syrian forces were driven back to the northern valley
Israeli and Druze forces then fought their own war
International pressure forced Israel to withdraw to South Lebanon
Agreed that if Syria withdrew from the north then Israel would leave Lebanon

American Intervention 1983-4

Syria took increasing control of Lebanese affairs: defeated PLO which had withdrawn; 1981 defeated the Christians; Russia supplied weapons and advisers; 1983 occupied the north; continued the struggle against Gemayel’s Christian government
Reagan overthrew communist government of Grenada
Sent 1500 troops and a fleet to invade Lebanon
Supported by Great Britain, France and Italy who sent troops as part of an international peace-keeping force
This came under attack from Syrian, Druze and Muslim forces
It allowed public opinion to see the US and other forces as pro-Israeli
Threat to world peace as Syria was backed by Russia
If US forces clashed with Syria’s would the Soviets send help
1984-6 terrorist attacks on US embassy in Beirut
Reagan withdrew US forces
Israel withdrew too
Christian and Muslim forces continued the fight
PLO returned to the fight too

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