Russia 1885-1914

Tsar Alexander II

Became Tsar in 1855 in the Crimean War
The war showed up how backward Russia was
Industry failed to meet need for munitions
Agriculture didn’t supply demand for food
Civil Service unable to organise the war
1856 he made peace with GB and France and set out to reform Russia

The Peasants

Tsar and nobility owned most of Russia’s arable land
Most people were serfs who:

Had to work 3 days a week for their owner
Paid most of the tax intake
Could be sold and punished without trial eg flogging by their masters
Could be conscripted for service in the army

Each family had about 15 acres to farm for themselves but they didn’t own it

Effects of Serfdom

Inefficient agriculture
No incentive to work hard – profits went to owners
Developing industries short of workers
Serfs not allowed to move to the factories
West European revolutionaries could persuade serfs to revolt
Alexander II: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above rather than await the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below”

The Edict of Emancipation 3 March 1861

44 million peasants freed by this edict
They could now own land
They could leave their estate but had to carry a passport
They didn’t have to work on the nobles’ land
Government surveyors divided the land between the owners and serfs
Former serf families given about 8 acres – less than when on their master’s estate
They had to pay for land
It was valued by a government official
The government paid the owner
The ex-serfs had to pay instalments for 49 years
The mir (village commune) became the new owners
Each year the ‘elders’ divided the land according to the numbers in each family
The mir collected the debt instalments

Developments

Population increased from 50 million (1850) to 82 million (1900)
After 1861 annual division of land led to the award of smaller and smaller plots
Farming was so inefficient that peasants could feed their own families but few produced enough for sale
Result – shortages in the towns
Many peasants had to abandon farming because they were unable to pay the annual instalments
Some went to work for more successful ex-serfs (kulaks)
Others went to work in industrial towns

Local Government Reforms

Upper classes had governed the countryside, building brides and schools etc
After Emancipation another way was needed to do it
The mir (commune) was bottom of the government ladder
There were elections to choose its leaders
Zemstvos (district councils) controlled by nobles
After 1861 they were elected by nobles, townspeople and peasants (ex serfs)
Zemstvos ran roads and bridges maintenance, and an improved school system
Zemstvos were 2^nd rung of government ladder above the mir
3^rd rung were the provincial zemstvos
They looked after public health and chose magistrates for the new law courts

Liberals

Pleased by democratic elections to the mir and district zemstvos (included nobles gentry and townspeople)
Such partial democracy made them discontented because Provincial Governors (appointed by government) could overrule a zemstvo
Tsar had created these 3 tiers of government but refused a national council or parliament
Also forbade members of zemstvos meeting in national conferences

Other Reforms

Press

Censorship relaxed
Writers could criticise government – Alex wanted critics out in the open
National newspapers increased from 6 to 16 by 1881

Legal System

Judges and magistrates were appointed for life and could not be sacked by the government
Equality before the law was proclaimed and trials were open
Trial by jury replaced a system in which a nobleman judge/magistrate presided
Limits to the legal reforms:

Political offenders were not tried by jury
Peasants and offending newspaper editors had their own courts
These couldn’t speak in their own defence during trial

Army

1874 all classes became liable for military service & not only the peasants
Service length reduced from 25 to 15 years
Flogging of soldiers stopped

Education

10,000 schools built by local zemstvos to deal with illiteracy
Old fashioned schools offered mainly classics – no sciences
Modern schools offered science
Only students from old-fashioned schools could go to university
Government regarded science as dangerous

Poland

Poland part of Russian Empire
1863 Poles rose in revolt because:

Russian defeat in Crimean War suggested they were too weak to crush a revolt
Italians rebelled against Austria
Reforms created a liberal atmosphere

Revolt was sparked by the closing of the Polish Agricultural Society
Anti-Russian demonstrations took place
Troops fired on the crowds
Napoleon III of France wanted to help the Catholic Poles
But Bismarck wouldn’t allow French troops to cross Prussia
This gained Russian friendship
The rising was savagely crushed
Alexander II and his ministers now encouraged:

Russian nationalism
Pan-Slavism
Union of the Slavs of South-Eastern Europe under leadership of Russia

Threat of Revolution

Revolutionary movements developed because:

Land reform left many dissatisfied
Education produced more literate people who could read radical literature
Each reform increased the appetite for more
Growth of industrial towns led to increase in radical workers

The Nihilists

From Latin – ‘nihil’ means ‘nothing’
This was a group of revolutionaries who believed that everything from the past had to be destroyed
From this a new society could be developed
Took advantage of new press freedoms to gain support
Thousands joined
Used terrorism in effort to overthrow system – bombs, guns, knives etc

Government Repression

Thousands sent to Siberian exile
Many leading nihilists were students so government tried to restrict university entrance to those thought to be loyal to the Tsar
Newspaper editors sacked if they failed to reveal names of nihilist writers

Narodniki

This was the name given to thousands of students
In the 1870s went to preach revolutionary ideas to the peasants
Little success because:

Most peasants didn’t understand the ideas involved
Local priests had great influence and got the peasants to attack them
Peasants shocked by their behaviour

Movement faded away and Alexander restricted university entrance further

Socialism

Socialism had influence in 1870s
Revolutionaries were attracted by the village commune
Believed it was the ideal socialist society with commune land shared according to need
Tried to preach peaceful revolution
Others led by the ex-nihilist Michael Bakunin wanted violent revolution

Assassination of Alexander II in 1881

He began as the ‘Tsar Liberator’ making key reforms
But he couldn’t satisfy everyone
Unable to get what they wanted, some turned to terrorism
1866 attempt to kill him
1879, 2 more unsuccessful attempts on his life
In one 5 shots were fired at him; in another they dynamited the Winter Palace but he wasn’t there
1880 he was away again when the dining room at the palace was mined
A mine on a track his train was on failed to explode
1881 they finally succeeded in killing him with a bomb

Alexander III 1881-94

He declared that his father’s reforms were wrong and had failed
He determined to undo the reforms
He thus gave a free hand to his minister Pobedonostsev

Pobedonostsev

1865 he was Alex’s tutor
Alex made him Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod controlling the Church
He was responsible for a number of severe policies
The Okhrana (secret police) were given extra powers to deal with terrorists
Many were exiled, imprisoned or executed

Education

University entrance restricted to classical students
Teachers were spied on and government critics sacked
Children of peasants and working classes denied secondary education
Primary schools now controlled by Church
Children taught to be obedient to the government

Press

More closely supervised
14 newspapers critical of government closed

Land Captains

Drawn from old nobility
Given powers over all other officials
Replaced magistrates appointed by Alex

Subject Races

Latvia Estonia & Lithuania had been allowed to keep their own languages/customs
Now they had to use Russian –it became official language in the press, courts and in dealings with officialdom
Russian made compulsory in all Polish schools
Lutheran Church was persecuted

The Jews

Attacks on the Jews common but intensified (pogroms)
Only allowed to live in towns
Fewer allowed secondary education
Orthodox priests encouraged people to attack Jews

Industrialisation

Russia was poor, inefficient and militarily weak
Industrialisation on the western model essential
But with it would come such ideas as trade unions and political development
Some progress already:

1855 only one railway in Russia
By 1860 over 1,000 miles of rail
By 1888 13,000 miles
This boosted iron steel and coal industries
Textile industry began centred on 2 or 3 areas

Foreign participation proved vital in this development:

French finance helped pay for raw materials and machinery imports
Nobel brothers of Sweden began oil industry and built 1^st oil tankers
British formed the New Russian Company to set up factories in Donetz Basin
Siemens of Prussia set up telegraphic system and factories

Paying for Development

Interest had to be paid on borrowed money and the loans themselves
Exported wheat to get the money
Government increased peasant taxes – got the money in the form of grain
Result – peasants even poorer than before
Hit industrial workers too – prices rose because not enough grain
Result – famines but exports maintained
Workers suffered from:

Shortage of food and high prices
Poor housing
Poor working conditions
Low pay
No trade unions

Another result was that number of town workers increased
These were less under the influence of the Church than peasants
Foreign industrialists showed the benefit of working for a profit and that science was essential for industrial progress

Witte

Minister of Finance 1892-1903
Responsible for the effort to industrialise Russia at that time
Major roles played by foreigners – Witte of Dutch ancestry
Main industry – agriculture – Witte thought this was strong
It was industry that needed developing
1892 took foreign loans to build Trans-Siberian Railway (completed 1902)
1900 coal output 15 million tons (GB 200 million tons)
Central Asian cotton farming allowed textile production to grow in Poland and Moscow area
Wool, iron and steel grew
1885-1900, industrial output increased 3-fold
3 million industrial workers
Industrial development helped by import tariffs on goods Russian factories could make
To pay for loans, government income had to increase
One way was by the government taking a monopoly on alcohol sales
Provided ¼ of government revenue

Development of Revolutionary Organisations

Social Revolutionary Party (SRP)

Founded 1901 from earlier attempts to rouse the peasantry
Industrialisation led to fall in peasants’ standard of living
They paid most of the tax take
Their poverty was reflected in their mortality rate
Caused by poor diet and living conditions
1882 Peasants’ Land Bank helped them buy land
Interest rates high though
Payment of instalments for land grants made after 1861 left little cash for new purchases
SRP hoped to lead the peasants to violent revolution
SRP carried out terror attacks on Land Captains and other officials
Attacks on Alex III eg 1887 assassination attempt failed – plotters tried in court
Lenin’s brother Alexander Ulyanov was executed

The Liberals

Known as the Kadets from the initials of their Constitutional Democratic Party wanted the Tsar to allow a British style parliament
Most of their support came from the zemstvos

The Social Democratic Labour Party (SDLP)

Formed 1898
Main support - industrial workers
Followed Marxist policies
Didn’t believe terrorism could succeed
Often attacked by secret police

The Bolsheviks

Lenin arrested in 1895
1897 put in prison again
1897-1900 exiled to Siberia
Then forced to live abroad
He and other exiles published a newspaper called Iskra (the Spark)
They smuggled it into Russia
1903 its production committee had meetings in Brussels and then London
Argued over what a revolutionary party should be like
Trotsky wanted a mass party like the SRP
Lenin wanted a small party in which every member was a revolutionary who knew what a Marxist revolution meant
They voted on it:

The majority (Bolsheviks in Russian) agreed with Lenin
The minority (Mensheviks) agreed with Trotsky

Tsar Nicholas II 1894-1917

Promised to adhere to principles of autocracy
His wife had no sympathy with reform

Plehve

1902 became Minister of the Interior when his predecessor was assassinated
He was in charge of domestic government
His policies were:

Organised anti-Jewish demos and pogroms
Continued the Russianisation of Finland, Poland, Baltic provinces & Armenia

But his policies were different because:

He was alarmed by success of SDLP in winning support of industrial workers
He sent spies into factories as workers – they tried to start strikes to flush out leaders who could be arrested

He promoted the idea of Holy Russia and a peasantry loyal to the Tsar and Church
This was in opposition to Witte’s ideas
1903 he persuaded Tsar to sack Witte
Discontent continued – strikes, terrorism & peasant revolts
Plehve persuaded Tsar to have a short, victorious war against Japan
Hoped that it would support for the Tsar and end the unrest in Russia

Russo-Japanese War 1904-5

Feb 1904 began
Sept 1905 ended at Treaty of Portsmouth
Poor leadership had caused heavy Russian defeats
High casualties
Transport system not good enough to supply the military
Shortage of food in industrial towns

1905 Revolution

1904 Plehve assassinated by SRs
Constitutional reform demanded by Union of Zemstvos who wanted:

A Russian parliament
Free speech
Fair trials
Abolition of the secret police

SDLP organised strikes and demos
Wanted an end to the war and an end to Tsarist rule
Regional peasants rioted
Land Captains and nobles murdered

Bloody Sunday 22 January 1905

Father Gapon (priest) was a government spy sent to work among industrial workers
SDLP planned an anti-Tsarist demo in the capital St. Petersburg (Jan 1905)
To stop SDLP getting the credit, Gapon and other agents planned their own
Industrial workers and their families set out to march to the palace to present their petitions complaining about:

Long working hours, low wages, poor housing, high prices etc
Asked for a parliament
Protested their loyalty to the Tsar

In fear, Nicholas had gone to another palace at Tsarsko Selo
The guards at the Winter Palace fired at the crowds
130 were killed and 3,000 wounded

Unrest

Strikes in industrial towns
Mutiny on the battleship Potemkin June 1905 – bombarded port of Odessa
October rail strike in Moscow – became a national strike
Food not getting to industrial towns
Trotsky created soviets (workers’ councils) in St Petersburg and Moscow factories
They were supported by teachers, doctors and lawyers
Demanded overthrow of the system of government

October Manifesto 1905

Witte was recalled as Chief Minister (he had opposed the war) after the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth
Tsar promised reforms in a Manifesto:

Promised a Duma (parliament)
He would make no laws without Duma approval

The Liberals liked this development
Many strikers went back to work believing they would get their desired reforms
Soviets led by SDLP believed it was not enough
Peasants continued with riots not believing a Duma would help them
Tsar felt more secure when the army came back from the war against Japan
Soviet leaders were arrested
Armed rising by Moscow workers (Dec. 1905)
This was crushed by force
Tsar’s advisers knew the concessions would not be enough
April 1906 new French loans
Terrorist attacks on reformers carried out by right-wing Russian People’s League
May 1906 (just before 1^st Duma due to meet) Tsar issued The Fundamental Law of the Empire which declared:

As autocracy was ordained by God it could not be subject to the Duma
Control of finance would not be left to the Duma
Duma would have limited powers to pass new laws

Duma Election of 1906

Most men allowed to vote in a secret ballot
Direct elections only held in large towns
Most reps elected by an indirect system contrive to ensure landowners and non-socialist peasants were elected
Aim – elect a conservative Duma loyal to the Tsar

1^st Duma May 1906

Kadets (Liberals) won most seats
Demanded full control of taxes
They reminded Tsar of October Manifesto promise of constitutional government
Tsar now dismissed the Duma and called fresh elections
Leading Kadets fled to Viborg in Finland
They issued a Manifesto calling on voters not to pay taxes or serve in army

Stolypin and 2^nd Duma June 1907

Peter Stolypin appointed PM as Witte’s successor was a conservative
Wanted effective reforms and resist and stop revolution
He refused to allow some candidates to stand for election
Anti-Tsarist candidates were put in prison
Many voters were removed from the voting list
Jews threatened with death if they voted
But – 2^nd Duma was more radical than 1^st
Moderate and constitutional Liberals lost seats
SDLP won 65 seats
Stolypin asked the Duma to condemn terrorism – it refused
Tsar ordered arrest of SDLP for treason – Duma refused and so was dismissed

3^rd & 4^th Dumas 1907-14

1907 electoral laws were changed
SDs could not stand for election
Potential trouble-makers put in prison
3^rd & 4^th Dumas loyal to Tsar and Stolypin

Stolypin’s Reforms

Revolutionaries remembered Stolypin’s repression
After 1905 revolution 1500 were executed
Stolypin’s response was that 4,000 officers had been killed or injured
Russianisation continued in Finland and elsewhere
Jews still badly treated
Elections were rigged and the Duma emasculated
Many peasants remembered only his reforms:

The mir abolished
Peasants could own/rent own land without interference from the commune
Peasant banks helped them buy land

Many did – these kulaks (rich peasants) were more go-ahead
They made their land profitable
Result – there was enough food for town workers and export
Another result – kulaks became more loyal to the Tsar and opposed to revolution

Problems

Stolypin unpopular with many
Assassinated 1911 in Tsar’s presence in a Kiev theatre
The monk Rasputin became a strong influence on the royal family
Their son had haemophilia and was dying – Rasputin prayed over him and he lived
By 1912 there were lurid stories about his behaviour with the ladies of the court
Such scandals reduce loyalty to the Tsar
July 1914 Russia went to war – it revealed how little hold the Tsar had over his people

Russian Foreign Policy 1870-1914

The Eastern Question

Turkey had ruled large parts of SE Europe
By early 19^th century they were unable to control their empire
Numerous rebellions eg Greece
Greece was 1^st Christian state to break away from Muslim Turks
During 19^th century others tried as well – the empire was crumbling
Other major states had an interest in this
Russia was biggest Slav state and many Slavs were ruled by the Turks
Eg Serbs, Bulgars, Albanians and Rumanians
All were members of the Orthodox Church
Russia made herself protector of the Slavs
If they rebelled against the Turks, Russia would help
In return it was hoped they would let Russia influence their foreign policies and trade
Russia wanted an outlet to the Mediterranean too
To achieve this one of two things could be done:

Help one of the Christian peoples to gain control of the Aegean Sea coast where Salonika could become the Russian controlled outlet for Russian trade
She could capture Constantinople, control the Dardanelles and develop her Black Sea ports

The Franco-Russian Alliance

1873 Russia involved in talks with Prussia and Austria to promote friendship and guard against revolutionary activity by France
This ‘League of the Three Emperors’ was strengthened in 1881 when Bismarck persuaded them to sign a treaty
They promised not to help any 3^rd country (ie France) if that country went to war with any of the 3 states

The Renewal of the Eastern Question

1878 Congress of Berlin created a ‘small’ Bulgaria
1885 Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia united under the Tsar’s nephew
1886 Serbia declared war on Bulgaria and was defeated
Russia had the Bulgarian ruler kidnapped hoping to make him more pro-Russian
Bulgaria refused to accept him as their leader
He was replaced by Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg in 1887
He followed an ant-Russian and pro-German line

The Reinsurance Treaty 1887

Russia unhappy with the loss of influence
Bismarck feared Austria might declare war on Russia and drag Germany in
1887 Bismarck made secret treaty with Russia (Reinsurance Treaty)
He promised German support for Russian claim to influence in Bulgaria and German neutrality in an Austro-Russian War if Austria was the aggressor
This broke the terms of the Dual Alliance with Austria
1888 there was another row over the choice of German Prince Ferdinand as ruler of Bulgaria
Bismarck published the terms of the Dual Alliance
Russia would have to fight Germany if she went to war with Austria

The Franco-Russian Alliance 1892-5

Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 not renewed in 1890
Kaiser made it clear he wanted Germany to become an important influence in the Balkans
Russia felt isolated now
France and Russia had many differences but economics drew them together
France had recovered from the Austro-Prussian War but Russia needed loans for modernisation – France could help here
The navies of both countries exchanged visits
The press of both countries wrote in friendly terms
1892 the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed, confirmed in 1894, strengthened 1897
Each promised to help the other if attacked by Germany

Entry into 1^st World War 1914

When the Austrian Archduke was killed at Sarajevo Austria made demands that Serbia could not accept
28 July Austria therefore declared war on Serbia
30 July Russia ordered partial mobilisation
Germany demanded this be revoked – Russia refused so Germany declared war

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