Nationalist Problems

Gorbachev and the Nationalist Problem

It was his second greatest failure
Like the economic crisis it contributed to Soviet Union breaking up
Russian Republic (RSFSR) with population of 145 million ethnic Russians in 1986 was one of the 15 republics in USSR
It was the largest – 52% of the population
The other 14 republics were:-

Baltic States

Latvia – 1.5 million
Estonia – 1.1 million
Lithuania – 3 million

Western Slavic States

Ukraine – 44 million
Belorussia – 10 million
Moldavia – 3 million

Transcaucasus

Armenia – 4.5 million
Azerbaijan – 5.9 million
Georgia – 3.9 million

Central Asian Republics

Uzbekistan – 16.5 million
Turkmenistan – 2.7 million
Kirgizstan – 2.6 million
Tajikistan – 3.9 million
Kazakhstan – 8.7 million
Communist Party elites in many non-Russian republics had become entrenched during Brezhnev’s time
They were corrupt and resistant to change especially in Transcaucasia and Central Asia
Gorbachev replaced leadership in some republics
But unable to do much about the local nomenklatura in party and government

Kazakhstan

December 1986 first signs Gorbachev did not realise strength of nationalist feelings or the delicacy of the relationship between Moscow and some republics
Decided to remove 74 year old Kunayev who had led Kazakhstan since 1954
Reputation for spectacular corruption
Ran his republic like a mafia boss helped by family and friends
Article in Izvestiya listed his assets – had control of:
247 hotels
414 guest flats
84 cottages
22 hunting lodges
350 hospital beds
Gorbachev made mistake of replacing him with a Russian – Gennady Kolbin
He’s ended the corruption in Georgia
Kazakh nationalist feelings angered that a Russian should be appointed as their new leader
Big demonstration outside Communist Party HQ in the capital Alma Ata
Kunayev’s family and friends had a hand in its organisation
Moscow sent troops to disperse them
Some killed, hundreds injured, thousands arrested
Gorbachev shocked but stood his ground
Kolbin not replaced by a Kazakh until 1989

Further Tensions

These were inevitable as Glasnost and Perestroika came on full stream with freedom of expression
The various nationalities demanded more local control and self-determination
In each republic were conflicts between ethnic minorities and the dominant nationality group

Georgia

2 minority groups: Muslim Abkhaz and Osetins
Each had small autonomous regions in Georgia
Constant clashes
Abkhaz and Osetins who protested the Georgians were interfering too much in their regions
Georgians said non-Georgians wanted too much

Yeltsin

Most disturbing development – a Russian nationalist movement led by Boris Yeltsin
Aimed to use Russian republic as an alternative power base from which to challenge hard-line communists and Gorbachev too
Gorbachev had no intention of breaking up USSR but it seemed inevitable if he continued with the democratising element of Perestroika
He believed he’d find a middle way between the Soviet system and total breakdown in which every national group, not just the 15 republics, became independent
Hoped persuasion and negotiation would allow a system that preserved a high level of integration and co-operation

Armenia and Azerbaijan

First major nationalist test for Gorbachev
Conflict between these 2 republics over possession of the Nagorno-Karabakh region
Population 80% Armenian
Placed under jurisdiction of Azerbaijan by Stalin (1923)
Armenians Christian, Azeris Shiite Muslims
Felt their culture was suppressed and that they were exploited economically by Azeri authorities in Baku
The new atmosphere in USSR encouraged the Soviet of Nagorno-karabakh to request transfer to the jurisdiction of Armenia (February 1988)
Demonstrations in Yerevan (Armenian capital) in support
Clashes between Azeris and Armenians in Azerbaijan
Worst violence in city of Sumgait near Baku -26 Armenians and 6 Azeris killed
Moscow refused the request – it would encourage scores of similar demands
June 1988 Armenian Supreme Soviet voted to bring Nagorno-Karabakh into Armenia
This was rejected by Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan
Supreme Soviet of USSR voted against the incorporation too
Disorder followed
Nagorno-Karabakh put under direct rule by Supreme Soviet in Moscow (January 1989)
Clashes continued civil war seemed likely

Georgia

Growing nationalist movement
Wanted autonomy from USSR
Refused independence for Abkhaz people
Huge demonstrations for several days in Tbilisi the capital – mostly peaceful
Local Communist Party leaders decided to use troops to disperse crowds
20 demonstrators killed and several policemen who tried to protect women in the crowd from the troops – hundreds injured
Violence was counter-productive
Public opinion turned on Georgian Communist Party
Rush of support for the nationalists – demands for independence
November Georgian Supreme Soviet declared sovereignty
Said Soviet occupation of Georgia 1921 violated 1920 treaty between Georgia and Russia
Tendency to blame Gorbachev for the trouble but he’d done his best to prevent violence
Said resolution must come through political means and talks
Enquiry – local party leaders blamed - sacked
General in charge troops relocated

Baltic Republics

1940 annexed by USSR
Stalin made secret agreement with Hitler shortly after the Non-Agression Pact of August 1938
Moscow said they joined voluntarily
Denied secret deals
1941 Germans took over
1944 Soviets returned
Nationalists waged guerrilla war
Stalin ruthless –
Hundreds executed
700,000 sent to Siberia
Local cultures undermined and suppressed
Large numbers of Russian immigrants
1989 only half population of Latvia were Latvians – 33% Russians
28% Russians in Estonia
January 1988 Estonian People’s Front issued their program –
Official language to be Estonian not Russian
Appoint Estonians to leading positions in the state
Market economy to replace command economy
Ultimate aim – independence
The Front didn’t call itself a party (Communists only party allowed)
Many Communists were in the Front
Latvia and Lithuania followed

Lithuania

Their group was known as Sajudis (means ‘movement)
Gorbachev removed the hard-line party elites in all 3 republics
New progressive leaders appointed
Told to work with the nationalist movements

Reaction in Moscow

Gorbachev felt nationalists getting too extreme
They supported Perestroika but he was against complete independence and more autonomy within USSR
He had problems in the Politburo
Ligachev and the conservatives feared disaster coming
23^rd August 1988 demonstrations in all 3 Baltic republics to mark anniversary of Nazi-Soviet Pact
Ligachev wanted a crack-down
Gorbachev realised the conservatives had to be appeased
Troops broke up a rally in Vilnius (capital Lithuania)
The new USSR Supreme Soviet had power to overrule laws passed by the republics
Supreme Soviets of the 3 Baltic republics rejected this
It showed that majority Baltic Communist Parties backed nationalists

Estonia

Estonian Supreme Soviet rules that Estonian legislation took precedence over USSR’s (16^th November)
Moscow annulled this
January 1989 Estonia passed law that Estonians had 4 years to learn Estonian language (aimed at Russians)
Lithuania and Latvia followed this

Elections March 1989

Elections for new USSR Congress of People’s Deputies
Enabled Baltic nationalists to publish their election manifestos
Estonia’s had all the items vetoed by Moscow
This included sovereignty of parliament, free market economy and private property
The People’s Fronts won the elections to the Congress in the Baltic States
August Moscow made concession –
All national areas to have more rights
All to be treated as equals
National cultures and languages to have free reign
It was not enough

The Human Chain

August 1989 Lithuanian Supreme Soviet voted that the incorporation of Lithuania into USSR 1940 illegal
50^th anniversary of Nazi-Soviet Pact, 2 million people formed a human chain from Vilnius (Lithuania) to Tallinn (Estonia)
December, Lithuanian Communist Party (in an attempt to keep population’s support) declared itself independent of Communist Party of USSR
Gorbachev condemned all these events
He went to Lithuania to talk to the leaders (January 1990) and the crowds
Shocked by their strength of feelings
Tried to convince them that when his reforms went through they’d be better off in USSR – failed
Events in eastern Europe encouraged all non-Russians
By early 1990 most Soviet satellites had rejected communism and Moscow’s control
11^th March Lithuania declared independence
Non-communist, Landsbergis, elected president

The Armenian-Azerbaijani Conflict

January 1990 erupted again
60 Armenians murdered by Azeris in Baku
Soviet troops killed 83 Azeris
Some sources put the figure at over 200
Gorbachev said it had to be done to restore order
Real reason – restore communist control and crush Azerbaijani national Front who’d captured Communist Party buildings in Baku and had control of the capital

The Law of Secession

Passed April 1990
2/3 pop had to vote for independence
Then there was 5 year transition period after which the Soviet legislature was required to give final go-ahead
Smaller national groups in large republics could opt to remain in USSR
It meant a republic could lose territory on becoming independent
When Lithuania became independent Belorussia demanded return of Klaipida – part of Belorussia
The Law was simply ignored
It was an attempt by Gorbachev to buy time for his reforms to work
He wanted USSR to become the kind of organisation nobody wanted to leave
For him it was vital – control of Eastern Europe had been lost
But he was determined to avoid use of force

Lithuanian Blockade

Lithuania declared independence in March 1990
Gorbachev imposed economic blockade (18^th April)
June moratorium agreed
Lithuania to suspend (but not cancel) its declaration of independence
Gorbachev to call off blockade
Temporary solution
Tension remained high
USSR beginning to disintegrate

Yeltsin

He’d just been elected Chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet
8^th June, on Yeltsin’s initiative, declared sovereignty
Announced its laws would take precedence over laws passed by USSR
At 28^th Party Congress Yeltsin resigned from the Party and walked out of the Congress
Speaking as leader of the Russian Republic he told the governments of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania that he’d oppose any action that tried to keep them in USSR by force
June - Uzbekistan declared its sovereignty
July – Ukraine and Belorussia
August – Turkmenistan, Armenia and Tajikistan

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