Appeasement

What was Appeasement?

It is a concept particularly associated with those policies formulated to avoid war which were implemented by western statesmen in the late 1930s as a response to the aggressive actions of fascist states, especially Germany, and to a lesser extent, Italy
It is particularly linked with the British government of Neville Chamberlain
Its zenith was 1938
It was underscored by the belief that the grievances of states such as Germany and Italy were genuine and that if they were met, the aggressors would settle down and not make fresh demands
So it meant taking the initiative to try to settle international disputes by negotiation
Critics said it meant surrender to the demands of aggressor states

Its Origins

Began in 1920s with Dawes and Young Plans
These were to please the Germans
The Locarno Treaties made an important omission – Britain did not guarantee Germany’s eastern frontiers
Even Streseman said these frontiers must be revised
Austen Chamberlain (Neville’s half brother) said no British government would risk the bones of a British Grenadier to defend the Polish Corridor
The Germans thought this gave them a free hand in Eastern Europe
Climax at Munich – Great Britain and France so determined to avoid war that they gave the Sudetenland to Germany
This led directly to the destruction of the Czech state
Despite all concessions Appeasement failed

What were the Merits of Appeasement?

It was an attempt to rectify injustices and establish a new Europe in which all nations co-existed in peace
The policy had at least been attempted and demonstrated that the West wanted peace, and that much of the responsibility for the war that began in 1939 lay with the dictators. This gave the West whatever moral advantage there was in the ensuing conflict

The Reasons for Appeasement

1. Fear of the horrors of war

Essential to avoid devastating war
Spanish Civil War amply demonstrated this
Britain couldn’t afford it – in economic crisis
Public opinion supported government quest for peace
AJP Taylor “The country was pacific, if not pacifist”
In February 1933 Oxford Union voted not to fight for king and country
Baldwin’s National Government won November 1935 election
He said: ’ I give you my word of honour there will be no great armaments’

2. Italian and German Grievances

Italy cheated by Great Britain and France at 1919 Peace Conference
Germany treated harshly
Great Britain should be sympathetic to German claims
There should be revision of hated Versailles clauses
This would remove need for German aggression
This would lead to Anglo-German friendship

3. League of Nations’ Weakness

League helpless
Chamberlain wanted to settle disputes by personal contact between leaders
He hoped to civilise Hitler and Mussolini
He would get them to respect international law

4. Economic Co-operation

This would be good for Great Britain and Germany
If Great Britain helped the German economy to recover, violence would end

5. Fear of USSR

Fear of Communism and USSR; especially the British Conservatives who saw the Reds as worse than Hitler
British politicians overlooked unpleasant features of Nazism hoping Germany would control Soviet ambitions about expanding westward
Many admired Hitler’s achievements.

6. Britain’s Lack of Preparation

Great Britain should not take action that would lead to a war
Britain not prepared for war
USA isolation, France weak and divided
Chamberlain speeded re-armament to strengthen Britain’s hand in negotiations and to gain respect

Examples of Appeasement

Rearmament

Nothing done to stop it. Lord Lothian visited Hitler in January 1935. On return he said: ‘I am convinced that Hitler does not want war…what the Germans are after is a strong army which will enable them to deal with Russia.’

The Anglo-German Naval Agreement

This condoned German naval re-armament
It was signed without French or Italian agreement
It broke the Stresa Front
Shook French trust in Great Britain
Encouraged Laval (France) to find an understanding with Hitler and Mussolini

Abyssinia

Britain’s actions were half-hearted when Italy invaded

The Rhineland

Re-militarised March 1936
French alarmed but did not mobilise
France deeply divided and cautious
Great Britain did not back France
Great Britain liked Hitler’s offer of 25 year peace
Lord Londonderry sent Hitler a telegram of congratulations
Londonderry was Conservative Secretary of state for Air 1931-5
Lord Lothian said German troops had only entered their own ‘back garden’

The Spanish Civil War

Great Britain and France did not intervene
Italy and Germany helped Franco
Britain tried to get Mussolini to remove his troops by recognising Italian possession of Abyssinia (April 1938)
Mussolini did not keep his side of the bargain

Anschluss

Union of Austria and Germany (March 1938)
Great Britain and France protested
Many in Great Britain saw it as a natural union of ethnic Germans
Great Britain’s inactivity encouraged Hitler to move against the Czechs
Led to the Munich Crisis - the greatest act of Appeasement

Appeasement and International Relations

Important effect on international relations
It could have worked with some German governments
It convinced Hitler that Great Britain and France were weak
Thus he was willing to risk war over Poland (it started World War II)
Appeasement primarily British – French disagreed at times

French policy on Appeasement

Poincare stood up to the Germans
Briand in favour of conciliation but drew line at a proposed Austro-German customs union in 1931
Louis Barthou foreign minister for a few months in 1934 – believed in firmness towards Hitler
Wanted strong anti-German group with Italy and Russia
He was responsible for Russia entering League (September 1934)
Told Great Britain that France wouldn’t legalise German re-armament
This was because it was banned by Versailles Treaty
Barthou assassinated October 1934 with King Alexander of Jugoslavia who was on a state visit to France
Both were shot by Croat terrorists just after the king arrived in Marseilles
Pierre Laval succeeded Barthou
Signed alliance with Russia (May 1935)
It was a weak treaty – no military co-operation involved (Laval distrusted communists)
Pinned hopes on friendship with Mussolini
Failed with collapse of Hoare-Laval Pact
French politics now split between Left and Right – no decisive foreign policy possible
The Right admired Hitler so France fell in behind Great Britain’s lead

Appeasement 1935-9

It was the policy followed first by Great Britain and later by France, and involved avoiding war with Italy, Germany and Japan
It involved letting them have what they wanted as long as their demands were reasonable

The 2 Phases of Appeasement

Phase 1 (mid 1920s- 1937)

It was felt that war must be avoided at all costs
Britain and sometimes France accepted events such as:
Manchuria (conquered by Japan)
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) conquered by Italy
German re-armament
Rhineland re-militarisation

Phase 2 (1937-39)

May 1937 Neville Chamberlain British Prime Minister took initiative – asked Hitler what he wanted
Wanted to show Hitler that reasonable claims could be settled peacefully

Appeasement Events

Roots lie in attempt to reconcile France and Germany in 1920s
West’s reaction to
1931 Manchurian Incident (Japan)
1935 Abyssinian Crisis (Italy)
In Far East Chamberlain believed in peace at any price – refused to act against Japanese aggression (USA also refused to act)
1936 opposed sanctions against Italy over Abyssinia
Said sanctions futile as they risked war
French appeasement 1936 caused by divisions in French politics – no action over Rhineland
From that time French relied on Great Britain for policy decisions
Austria annexed by Germany March 1938
This was a breach of Versailles Treaty
Western statesmen found excuses to justify it because they couldn’t prevent it
Czechoslovakia – the West’s major failure
March 1938 Chamberlain said Great Britain and France couldn’t stop German conquest of Czech state
Later that month said he’d back Czech if France did
In the autumn Chamberlain and Deladier said Czechs must be forced to make concessions to Germany
When these demands were increased Chamberlain asked Mussolini to arrange a conference to save peace
Munich Agreement (September 1938) – Sudetenland given to Germany
Czechs not consulted
In Great Britain Chamberlain was seen as the man who saved peace
March 1939 the ‘Rump’ of Czech was occupied by German troops
Chamberlain tried to arrange conferences when Poland was invaded but failed

The Munich Crisis

Hitler wanted to destroy Czechoslovakia as part of lebensraum policy
He hated Czech democracy
The Czech state was born out of the hated 1919 treaties
His excuse was that three and a half million Sudeten Germans under Konrad Henlein were being persecuted by the Czechs
Nazis organised protest demonstrations in Sudetenland
Clashes between Czechs and Germans
Czech President Benes knew Hitler was behind it
Realised Hitler intended invasion to ‘restore order’
Chamberlain and Deladier feared same
They wanted to avoid war at any price
They put great pressure on the Czechs to concede to Hitler
Chamberlain flew twice to see Hitler – to no avail
War seemed likely but Hitler invited Chamberlain and Daladier to a 4 power conference
Met at Munich 29^th September 1938

The Plan

Produced by Mussolini (drafted by the German foreign office)
This was accepted
Germany to get Sudetenland at once
The remainder of Czechoslovakia was to be guaranteed by Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy
Czechs and Russians not consulted
Czechs told they’d get no help if they resisted
Note – France guaranteed Czech frontiers at Locarno
Chamberlain was cheered in Great Britain for stopping war
He said: ‘I believe it is peace for our time’

Criticism

Churchill said Munich was ‘a total and unmitigated disaster’
Duff Cooper (First Lord of The Admiralty) resigned from the cabinet – said Hitler couldn’t be trusted

Result

Czechs lost 70% of their heavy industry to Germans
Lost nearly all fortifications
Slovakia demanded semi-independence

Poland

Hitler took Lithuanian port of Memel next (peopled by Germans)
Hitler now turned to Poland
Germans angry about loss of Danzig and Polish Corridor
This had happened at Versailles
With Czechs crushed Polish neutrality not needed
April 1939 Hitler demanded return of Danzig and road and rail link across the Corridor
Reasonable request – Danzig largely German
Poles knew it was a prelude to invasion

Polish Resistance

Britain promised help ‘in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence’
Polish foreign minister Colonel Beck rejected German demands
Beck refused to attend a conference – feared another Munich sell-out
Great Britain put pressure on Poland to hand over Danzig – Poles refused

The Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact

Great Britain needed an alliance with Russia if her promise to help Poland was to be carried out
Great Britain too slow – Hitler got in first
24^th August Non-aggression Pact – included partition of Poland
Hitler believed that with Russia neutral Great Britain and France would not intervene
Great Britain ratified the guarantee to Poland – Hitler decided it was a bluff
Poles refused to negotiate so Germans invaded (1^st September)
Chamberlain said if Germans withdrew a conference could be held – (Germans ignored him)
Pressure from Parliament and British public so he sent an ultimatum
No reply by 11am on 3^rd September so Great Britain declared war on Germany
France declared war soon after

Why Appeasement Failed

Note: Pacifism in 1930s in Great Britain and France very strong
Partly explains why Appeasement was adopted
It marked the final collapse of collective security via the League of Nations
It meant that West abandoned Versailles (and Hitler knew it)

Appeasement failed because

It was based on the assumptions that the grievances of the aggressors were genuine and that their objectives were limited to specific items

Comment

Neither assumption was correct
Concessions put the aggressors in a stronger position
It gave them the desire and capacity for more
It wasn’t the common policy of Germany’s opponents i.e. Russia was ignored (Communist state)
Until March 1939 Chamberlain did not believe that war with Germany was inevitable
He said Hitler must be trusted to be reasonable
This shows his naivety and the refusal of the West to face facts

The Czech Crisis

Chamberlain and Deladier followed erroneous views
They interfered in the internal affairs of another country
This would be justified if Czech internal affairs were a danger to European peace. Once it was realised that Germany’s real motive was pure aggression, no further negotiations should have been attempted
To do so showed the foolishness of Appeasement as a policy because a non-aggressive state was being forced to surrender territory to a hostile neighbour

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