Conscience - Joseph Butler

Thomas Aquinas (1224 – 1274) argued for Conscience as the power of reason, God given and exercised by people.

Joseph Butler (1692-1752)

Joseph Butler was Bishop of Durham from 1750, having been Bishop of Bristol from 1738. He is best known for his Analogy of Religion, which he wrote in 1736 when he was vicar of Stanhope (Co. Durham).

His Analogy of Religion was written to try to address the questions raised by people who accepted the idea of order and regularity in nature, but remained unconvinced by the claims of Religion.

It “tried to establish the analogy and conformity of Natural and Revealed Religion to what is observable in nature.” - Concise Dictionary of the Christian Church

Butler’s beliefs about morality are found in his sermons, preached at the Rolls Chapel in the City of London. They were published in 1726, and in them he tried to show that Morality and Religion are a natural part of everyday life.

Butler’s ideas are based on the principle that there is a basic “Human Nature”, and that within this nature there is a system. He argues that Morality is a matter of following Human Nature. There are various parts to Human Nature – these are organised hierarchically.

BUT

• This hierarchical order does not in itself give Human Beings the faculty to behave morally.
• Instead, Butler argues that the part of Human nature that is at the top of this hierarchy gives us the ability to adjudicate between the two main parts of Human nature. This “top” is Conscience.

The two principles at work are:

• Self-love - This is a desire for happiness for the self. It is "who can reflect upon themselves and their own interest or happiness, so as to have that interest an object to their minds"
• Benevolence - This is the desire or hope for happiness in other people.

The Conscience adjudicates between these two principles.

• This is an intrinsic part of Human Nature.
• To dismiss morality (as social construction or as psychological projection) is to deny that intrinsic part of human nature.

Conscience is therefore the supreme authority in Human Nature, and we should not disregard it.

As such, every human being has the ability to make moral judgements, through the exercise of the conscience. This conscience directs the individual as they make judgements based on the two (possibly conflicting) principles of self-love and benevolence (love of others). Conscience always argues against self-love and in favour of love of others.

The conscience “adjudicates between the two interests, Self-love and Benevolence

This guidance is intuitive. It is a gift from God, and as such, it’s guidance is not an option! It has universal authority in all moral judgements. 

BUT

• Intuition is not infallible – the conscience could be misinformed or even wrong!
• Without an appeal to external, objective moral yardsticks, it is possible that Butler’s idea allows moral anarchy, where an individual can intuit what is best regardless of the moral character of an action.
• The appeal to intuitive conscience is self-authenticating. It has its authority from within itself.

HOWEVER

Butler had been critical of Thomas Hobbes. He argued against Hobbes by trying to show that Benevolence was as much a part of Human Nature as Self-Love. He tries to show that Human Nature is made up of balances – benevolence is balanced by resentment, for example.

• Butler’s idea of a hierarchical system of principles within Human nature allows him to argue for the higher principle of virtue. He makes no claim for a particular religious or ethical system of laws and rules, but rather appeals to generally accepted civilized behaviour.

Assuming that the ability to behave in an altruistic manner is a fundamental part of Human Nature (i.e. it distinguishes us from other animals), then altruistic behaviour is natural to humanity – any behaviour that runs against this generally benevolent character is to deny a person’s basic humanity. Supporters of Butler could therefore argue that the conscience could never sanction behaviour that is anything less than benevolent. To ignore this benevolent character (and the conscience that promotes such behaviour) is to deny human nature.