Observational studies

Ethnographic studies describe the way of life of a group of people from their point of view and so appeal most to interpretivist sociologists.

Observation is the main type of ethnographic approach. There are four main types.

• External observation involves an observer objectively viewing a group but not taking any part in their activities, e.g. classroom observation.
• Non-participant covert observation involves secretly observing a group, e.g. through a one-way mirror.
• Participant observation involves the sociologist joining the everyday routines of a group and observing action in its natural context. Those being observed have given their permission and are aware of the research aims.
• Covert observation involves the sociologist concealing their identity and totally immersing themselves in a group culture.

Interpretivists see observation as having a number of advantages:

• It is naturalistic – people are observed as they follow their everyday routine. The sociologist sees life through their eyes.
• The rapport established between the sociologist and the social group may produce more valid data.
• Participant observation can uncover behaviour and attitudes that people may be unaware of.

Covert observation is good for studying deviant/criminal groups or
groups that feel threatened. It is especially useful when participant
observation would disturb natural rhythms and create artificial behaviour.
Positivists claim observation studies are unscientific.

• The presence of outsiders may influence the behaviour of the group observed – creating less valid data.
• The researcher may ‘go native’, i.e. become over-involved and lose detachment. Observers may see only what they want to see.
• Observation is not replicable. The same quality of relationship may not be established with another observer. The method is therefore unreliable.
• Observation is rarely quantified.
• It is difficult to generalise from observation studies because they focus on small samples – many of which are exotic and unrepresentative of mainstream society.

Observation may be impossible in some social situations because of differences in status. Observation may generate moral problems such as breaking the law, e.g. covert observation is seen by some as violating the principles of informed consent. Observation studies are time-consuming and costly. There are also practical problems in writing up notes without causing artificiality or without arousing suspicion if covert.

However, interpretivists argue that these problems of reliability are made up for by
the validity of the information produced.