Comparative Theories in Global Politics

Comparative theories offer essential frameworks for understanding the behaviour of states, institutions, and other actors in global politics. They help students analyse how international relations are shaped, why conflicts arise, and how cooperation is achieved. The two dominant schools of thought, realism and liberalism, provide contrasting perspectives on the nature of the international system and the prospects for order and peace. Additionally, other theories such as the anarchical society and society of states add depth by exploring norms and informal cooperation. This section provides a comprehensive overview of these theories, their main ideas, differences, and relevance to recent global developments since 2000.

Main Ideas of Realism

Realism is a foundational theory in global politics, characterised by its focus on states as the principal actors. Realists view the international system as anarchic, meaning there is no overarching authority above states. The following are the key concepts of realism:

• States as Key Actors: States are sovereign entities, prioritising their own interests and survival above all else.
• Balance of Power: States seek to maintain a balance to prevent any one state from becoming too dominant, which could threaten others.
• State Sovereignty: States possess supreme authority within their territories and resist interference from external bodies.
• International Anarchy: The absence of a central authority leads to a self-help system, where each state must ensure its own security.
• Inevitability of War: Due to competition and distrust, conflict is seen as a natural outcome in international relations.
• Security Dilemma: Actions taken by one state to increase its security (e.g., military build-up) often make other states feel less secure, potentially leading to an arms race or conflict.

Realism tends to be pessimistic about the prospects for peace and cooperation, emphasising the enduring nature of rivalry and conflict.

Main Ideas of Liberalism

Liberalism presents a more optimistic and cooperative vision of global politics. Liberals believe in the potential for progress, moral values, and institutions to foster peace and stability. Key ideas include:

• Morality and Optimism: Human nature is seen as capable of improvement, and moral principles can guide international relations.
• Harmony: Cooperation and mutual benefits are achievable through dialogue and negotiation.
• Complex Interdependence: States and non-state actors are interconnected through trade, communication, and shared challenges, reducing the likelihood of conflict.
• Global Governance: International organisations and regimes (e.g., United Nations, World Trade Organisation) play a crucial role in managing global issues and promoting cooperation.
• International Organisations: These bodies help regulate state behaviour, resolve disputes, and facilitate collaboration on issues like human rights, environment, and security.

Liberalism emphasises the importance of law, norms, and institutions in creating a more peaceful and just international order.

Divisions Between Realism and Liberalism

Despite their influence, realism and liberalism diverge on several key issues:

These divisions help explain different policy approaches and responses to international challenges.

The Anarchical Society and Society of States Theory

Hedley Bull’s concept of the anarchical society adds nuance to our understanding of international relations. While the international system is anarchic, states form a society of states where informal cooperation, norms, and reciprocal behaviour are possible. Key ideas include:

• Anarchy: No global government, but not total chaos.
• Informal Cooperation: States develop patterns of behaviour and informal agreements to manage relations.
• Norms: Shared expectations guide conduct, such as respect for sovereignty or non-intervention.
• Trust and Reciprocity: States can build trust through repeated positive interactions, leading to greater stability.

The society of states theory bridges realism and liberalism, suggesting that states can cooperate even in an anarchic environment.

Evaluation: Realism and Liberalism Since 2000

Recent developments in global politics illustrate the strengths and limitations of both realism and liberalism. Key case studies include:

• State and Globalisation: The rise of China and resurgence of Russia show that states remain powerful actors, supporting realist ideas. However, globalisation has increased interdependence, as seen in supply chain disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating liberal concepts of complex interdependence.
• Global Governance: Organisations like the UN, WTO, and WHO have played vital roles in addressing global issues (e.g., climate change, pandemics, human rights). The Paris Agreement (2015) on climate change exemplifies liberal hopes for cooperation, though realist scepticism is reflected in states’ reluctance to cede sovereignty or fully implement agreements.
• Power and Developments: The US-led interventions in Iraq (2003) and Afghanistan (2001) highlight realist concerns about power and security. Yet, the limitations of unilateral action and the need for multilateral cooperation show liberalism’s relevance.
• Regionalism and the EU: The European Union embodies liberal principles of pooled sovereignty and institutional cooperation. Brexit (2016), however, underscores realist arguments about the enduring importance of national sovereignty and the limits of supranational governance.

These examples illustrate that both theories offer valuable insights, with real-world events often reflecting a mix of realist and liberal dynamics.

Key Terminology Explained

Realism: A theory emphasising states as key actors, prioritising security and power in an anarchic international system.

Liberalism: A theory highlighting the potential for cooperation, the role of institutions, and the importance of moral values in global politics.

International Anarchy: The lack of a central authority governing states, leading to a self-help system.

Security Dilemma: The situation where steps by one state to increase its security cause insecurity in others, potentially escalating tensions.

Complex Interdependence: The idea that states and other actors are linked in multiple ways, making conflict less likely and cooperation more necessary.

Global Governance: The process by which international institutions and organisations manage global issues and facilitate cooperation.

Anarchical Society: A system where states interact without a central authority but develop rules, norms, and institutions for cooperation.

Society of States: A group of states that recognise common interests and norms, forming a community within the anarchic international system.

Summary

Comparative theories are essential tools for understanding the complexities of global politics. Realism and liberalism offer contrasting but complementary perspectives, while the anarchical society and society of states theory provide a middle ground. Analysing recent developments through these lenses equips students with the ability to critically evaluate international events and the roles of different actors. Mastery of key terminology and concepts is vital for success in Politics and for engaging with global issues as informed citizens.