The US Congress

This section provides an overview of the United States Congress, focusing on its structure, distribution of powers, and main functions. It is designed for Politics students and aims to develop a clear understanding of Congress’s role in the US political system. Key terminology is explained, and major debates regarding Congress’s effectiveness and significance are analysed.

The Structure of Congress

Bicameralism

The US Congress is bicameral, meaning it consists of two separate chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. This structure was established by the Constitution to balance the interests of states with large and small populations and to provide a system of internal checks and balances.

Membership

House of Representatives: Comprises 435 members, each representing a congressional district. The number of Representatives per state is proportional to population, with each state guaranteed at least one member.

Senate: Contains 100 members, with each state electing two Senators regardless of population. This ensures equal representation for all states in the upper chamber.

Election Cycles

• House members serve two-year terms, with all seats contested every even-numbered year during the general election.
• Senators serve six-year terms, with one-third of the Senate up for election every two years, ensuring continuity and experience within the chamber.

Distribution of Powers

Constitutional Powers

Congress’s powers are enumerated in Article I of the US Constitution. These include both exclusive and concurrent powers, some of which are shared with the President or the states.

Exclusive Powers

House of Representatives: Initiates money bills (bills raising revenue), brings articles of impeachment against federal officials, and elects the President in the event of an Electoral College deadlock.

Senate: Confirms presidential appointments (e.g., Cabinet members, federal judges), ratifies treaties by a two-thirds majority, and conducts impeachment trials.

Concurrent Powers

Both chambers share the power to make laws, declare war, regulate commerce, and oversee the executive branch.

Functions of Congress

Representation

Congress is designed to represent the American people and the states. Members seek to reflect the views and interests of their constituents, balancing local, state, and national concerns.

Legislative Function

Congress’s primary function is to draft, debate, amend, and pass legislation. This involves introducing bills, committee scrutiny, floor debates, and votes in both chambers, followed by presidential approval or veto.

Oversight

Congress oversees the executive branch and federal agencies, ensuring they implement laws as intended. Oversight is conducted through hearings, investigations, and the power of the purse (funding decisions).

Representation: Elections, Incumbency, and Voting Behaviour

Elections

House elections occur every two years, while Senate elections are staggered over six-year terms. Mid-term elections, which take place halfway through a presidential term, often serve as a referendum on the incumbent President and can shift the balance of power in Congress.

Incumbency

Incumbents (sitting members) generally enjoy a significant advantage due to name recognition, established support networks, and fundraising capabilities. This contributes to high re-election rates, particularly in the House of Representatives.

Factors Influencing Voting Behaviour

• Constituency interests
• Party affiliation and discipline
• Pressure from interest groups and lobbyists
• Personal convictions and career ambitions

Legislative Function: Process, Strengths and Weaknesses, and Policy Impact

Legislative Process

• Bills are introduced in either chamber (except revenue bills, which must start in the House).
• Committee review and amendment are crucial stages, often determining a bill’s fate.
• Bills must pass both chambers in identical form before being sent to the President.
• The President can sign, veto, or pocket veto legislation. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds majority in both chambers.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths: The process allows for detailed scrutiny, public input, and compromise.

Weaknesses: The system can lead to gridlock, especially during periods of divided government, and is susceptible to partisanship and the influence of interest groups.

Chamber Differences and Policy Impact

• The House is more responsive to public opinion due to shorter terms and smaller constituencies.
• The Senate is designed to be more deliberative, with unique rules such as the filibuster, which allows a minority to block legislation unless 60 Senators vote for cloture (ending debate).

Oversight Function: Congress and the Presidency

Checks and Effectiveness

Congress checks presidential power through hearings, investigations, and the confirmation or rejection of appointments. The effectiveness of oversight varies, often depending on party control and the willingness of Congress to challenge the executive.

Interpretations and Debates

Changing Roles and Powers

Debates persist over whether Congress has ceded too much authority to the executive branch, particularly in areas such as foreign policy and national security. Critics argue that partisanship and divided government can both enhance and undermine Congress’s effectiveness, leading to periods of legislative productivity or gridlock.

Party Significance and Representative Adequacy

The significance of political parties in Congress has increased, with greater party discipline and polarisation. There are ongoing debates about whether Congress remains sufficiently representative, given demographic disparities and the influence of money in politics.

Key Terminology

Congressional Caucuses: Groups of legislators within Congress who pursue common interests or legislative goals, such as the Congressional Black Caucus.

Divided Government: A situation where different parties control the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress, often leading to legislative gridlock.

Filibuster: A Senate procedure allowing extended debate to delay or block legislation. Ending a filibuster requires a cloture vote by 60 Senators.

Gridlock: The inability of Congress to pass legislation due to partisan conflict or institutional obstacles.

Incumbency: Holding a political office; incumbents often have significant advantages in elections.

Mid-term Elections: Congressional elections held halfway through a presidential term, often resulting in losses for the President’s party.

Oversight: Congressional monitoring of the executive branch and federal agencies to ensure accountability and proper implementation of laws.

Partisanship: Strong allegiance to one’s political party, sometimes at the expense of compromise or national interest.

Unanimous Consent: An agreement in the Senate that sets aside formal rules to expedite proceedings, provided no Senator objects.

Summary

The US Congress is a central institution in American government, embodying the principles of representative democracy, federalism, and the separation of powers. Its bicameral structure, complex legislative process, and robust oversight mechanisms are designed to ensure accountability and prevent the concentration of power. However, debates about partisanship, effectiveness, and representativeness continue to shape its role in twenty-first-century American politics. A thorough understanding of Congress is essential for analysing the dynamic nature of US governance.