Approaches in Psychology Quiz

Introspection is the process of examining and reporting one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings. It was used by early psychologists, such as Wundt, to study the structure of the mind. Although introspection was eventually criticised for its subjective nature, it helped establish psychology as a distinct scientific discipline by encouraging systematic and controlled observation of mental processes.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Pavlov’s research on dogs demonstrated this process by pairing the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus), causing the dog to salivate (conditioned response) in response to the bell alone.

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes another person being rewarded for a behaviour and is then more likely to imitate that behaviour themselves. It suggests that people can learn indirectly by observing the consequences of others' actions, rather than directly experiencing reinforcement themselves.

A schema is a mental framework or cognitive structure that helps individuals organise and interpret information. In the cognitive approach, schemas play a crucial role in shaping how we perceive the world and make decisions. They help simplify complex information but can also lead to errors in thinking when we rely on faulty or outdated schemas.

Genotype refers to an individual’s genetic makeup, the set of genes inherited from their parents. Phenotype refers to the observable physical and behavioural traits resulting from the interaction of the genotype with the environment. While genotype is inherited, phenotype can change due to environmental influences.

The behaviourist approach assumes that behaviour is learned from the environment and that all behaviour is a result of conditioning.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s research): In classical conditioning, behaviour is learned through association. Pavlov demonstrated this with his experiment on dogs, where he conditioned them to salivate at the sound of a bell, by associating it with food.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner’s research): Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences. Skinner’s research with rats and pigeons showed that behaviours could be shaped by reinforcement or punishment.

• Positive reinforcement (rewarding behaviour) and negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant stimulus) increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, while punishment decreases the likelihood.

Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasises the role of observational learning in behaviour. It argues that individuals learn by observing others and imitating their behaviour.
Key concepts include:

Imitation: Repeating observed behaviour.

Identification: When an individual adopts the behaviour of someone they admire or feel a connection with.

Modelling: Demonstrating a behaviour to be imitated.

Vicarious reinforcement: Observing the consequences of others' actions, which influences whether the behaviour is imitated.
Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children who observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a doll were more likely to imitate that behaviour. This research highlighted the importance of role models and the influence of media on behaviour.

The cognitive approach focuses on the study of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. Unlike behaviourism, which focuses on observable behaviour, the cognitive approach emphasises how we process and interpret information.

Schemas are mental structures that help organise and interpret information, and they guide our expectations and behaviour.

Cognitive models (e.g., the information-processing model) compare the mind to a computer, suggesting that we encode, store, and retrieve information in a similar way to how computers process data.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has linked mental processes to brain activity, using techniques like brain imaging to investigate how areas of the brain are involved in processes like memory and decision-making.

The biological approach emphasises the influence of genetics, brain structures, and neurotransmitters on behaviour.

Genes: Behavioural traits and predispositions are influenced by genetic inheritance. For example, research suggests that certain mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, have a genetic basis.

Brain Structures: The brain’s structure and function play a significant role in regulating behaviour. For instance, damage to the frontal lobe can affect decision-making and impulse control.

Neurochemistry: Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine are involved in regulating mood and behaviour. Imbalances in these chemicals are linked to disorders like depression and schizophrenia.

Genotype and Phenotype: The genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable traits) work together to shape behaviour. Environmental factors can also influence how genetic predispositions are expressed.

The psychodynamic approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behaviour.

• Unconscious Mind: Freud believed that much of our behaviour is driven by unconscious desires, memories, and conflicts.
• Structure of Personality: Freud proposed that personality consists of three components:
  • Id: The primitive, unconscious part that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.
  • Ego: The rational part that works on the reality principle, mediating between the id and the external world.
  • Superego: The moral conscience, representing internalised societal norms and values.
• Defence Mechanisms: These are unconscious strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety. Examples include repression (pushing unwanted thoughts into the unconscious), denial (refusing to accept reality), and displacement (shifting emotional responses to a safer target).
• Psychosexual Stages: Freud believed that early childhood experiences shape adult personality. He proposed that individuals pass through stages—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital—where conflicts at each stage can result in fixation and influence later behaviour.

The humanistic approach emphasises the inherent goodness of individuals and their capacity for self-growth and self-fulfilment. Key concepts include:

• Free Will: Humanistic psychologists reject determinism, suggesting that people have the ability to make their own choices and shape their own destinies.
• Self-Actualisation: This is the process of realising and fulfilling one’s potential. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-actualisation can only occur after more basic needs (such as physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, and esteem) are met.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: This theory proposes that humans have a set of hierarchical needs, starting with basic survival needs at the bottom and progressing to higher-order needs like self-esteem and self-actualisation at the top.
• Focus on the Self: Humanistic psychology places great emphasis on the individual’s experience and self-concept, aiming for congruence (alignment between ideal self and actual self) to promote mental well-being.
• Conditions of Worth: These are the expectations placed on individuals by others, which can interfere with personal growth if they lead to feelings of inadequacy or unworthiness.
  The humanistic approach has influenced counselling psychology, promoting client-centred therapy, which emphasises empathy, unconditional positive regard, and authenticity in the therapeutic relationship.

The behaviourist approach focuses on observable behaviour and assumes that behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment. It emphasises the role of conditioning (classical and operant) in shaping behaviour.
In contrast, the cognitive approach looks at internal mental processes such as memory, perception, and problem-solving. It focuses on how we process information and make inferences based on our experiences.

• Behaviourism: Emphasises stimulus-response relationships and external reinforcement.
• Cognitive: Emphasises internal mental processes like memory and attention, and the role of schemas in shaping our understanding of the world.
  While behaviourism is more deterministic, the cognitive approach sees humans as active processors of information, with a greater focus on conscious thought.

• Psychodynamic Approach: Focuses on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences. It suggests that much of human behaviour is driven by unconscious motives, desires, and unresolved conflicts. Freud’s theories emphasise internal conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
• Humanistic Approach: Emphasises the role of free will, self-actualisation, and the inherent goodness of individuals. Humanistic psychology views people as active agents who can make choices and realise their potential. Comparison: The psychodynamic approach is more deterministic and focuses on past experiences, while the humanistic approach is more optimistic and focuses on personal growth and self-determination.

Strengths:

• The biological approach is based on scientific research, providing evidence from brain imaging, neurochemistry, and genetics.
• It has led to the development of effective medical treatments for conditions like depression and schizophrenia. 

Weaknesses:

• It tends to overlook environmental and social factors that influence behaviour.
• It can be overly deterministic, suggesting that behaviour is solely influenced by biology, ignoring free will.

Psychodynamic Therapy: Psychodynamic therapy, which focuses on uncovering unconscious conflicts and past experiences, has influenced modern therapeutic practices. While some of Freud’s ideas have been criticised, the concept of the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms has informed therapeutic techniques like psychoanalysis.
Cognitive Therapy: Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) is one of the most widely used therapies today. It focuses on challenging distorted thinking patterns and changing maladaptive behaviours. The cognitive approach has been instrumental in developing evidence-based treatments for a wide range of disorders, including depression and anxiety.
Both approaches have contributed to the development of modern therapeutic techniques, but CBT is considered more scientifically valid due to its focus on measurable outcomes.