Caregiver Infant Interactions in Humans

This section explores attachment in Psychology focussing on Caregiver Infant Interactions in Humans.

Caregiver-Infant Interactions in Humans: Reciprocity and Interactional Synchrony

Caregiver-Infant Interactions are essential for the development of an infant’s attachment and social understanding. Two primary forms of interaction: reciprocity and interactional synchrony; play a central role in bonding and communication between infants and their caregivers.

Reciprocity

Definition: Reciprocity refers to the two-way, mutual exchange in which both infant and caregiver respond to each other’s signals, creating a “turn-taking” interaction.

Explanation: In reciprocal interactions, both the infant and caregiver are active participants, responding in a way that encourages further responses from each other. This is sometimes called a “dance” because each partner takes turns to respond, mirroring the behaviour of the other.

Significance: This form of communication helps infants learn about social behaviour and relationships. Research (e.g., Tronick’s Still Face Experiment) demonstrates that infants actively seek engagement and can become distressed if their caregiver does not respond, indicating an early understanding of social responsiveness.

Interactional Synchrony

Definition: Interactional synchrony refers to the coordinated, rhythmic exchanges between a caregiver and infant. This involves mirroring each other’s actions and emotions, especially facial expressions and body movements, in synchronised patterns.

Explanation: When interactional synchrony occurs, the caregiver and infant appear “in sync,” displaying a high level of emotional connection. Research by Meltzoff and Moore (1977) showed that infants as young as two weeks can imitate specific facial and hand gestures of adults, suggesting an innate capacity for synchrony.

Significance: Interactional synchrony has been linked to stronger attachment bonds, as it fosters emotional security and mutual responsiveness. Higher synchrony levels are associated with better social and emotional development.

Stages of Attachment Identified by Schaffer

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) conducted a longitudinal study on 60 infants from working-class families in Glasgow, examining how attachments develop over time. Based on their findings, they proposed a four-stage model of attachment:

Asocial Stage (0-6 weeks):

Characteristics: Infants show similar responses to humans and objects, though they may show a slight preference for human faces.

Behaviour: There is little discrimination between humans and inanimate objects, but they are more easily calmed by familiar caregivers.

Indiscriminate Attachment (6 weeks to 7 months):

Characteristics: Infants start to recognise and prefer familiar adults, but will accept comfort from anyone.

Behaviour: Social behaviours, such as smiling and “social releasing” behaviours, increase, encouraging interactions. There is no strong preference for a primary caregiver yet.

Specific Attachment (7+ months):

Characteristics: Infants begin to show a clear preference for one caregiver, usually the person who responds most sensitively to their needs. They develop separation anxiety when apart from this primary attachment figure.

Behaviour: The infant shows stranger anxiety, displaying discomfort around unfamiliar people, and strong attachment behaviours, such as seeking proximity to the primary attachment figure.

Multiple Attachments (around 10-11 months):

Characteristics: After forming a primary attachment, infants begin to form secondary attachments with other familiar people, like fathers, grandparents, and siblings.

Behaviour: Although the primary attachment figure remains the main source of comfort, infants demonstrate attachment behaviours, such as separation anxiety, with these secondary attachment figures as well.

Multiple Attachments and the Role of the Father

As infants grow, they typically form attachments to multiple figures, though the quality and role of these attachments may vary.

Multiple Attachments

Explanation: Schaffer and Emerson observed that once infants had formed a primary attachment, they quickly began forming secondary attachments. These relationships provide additional emotional and social support.

Significance: Multiple attachments contribute to an infant’s social development by exposing them to different social behaviours and emotional responses.

The Role of the Father

Attachment to Fathers: Traditionally, mothers have been seen as the primary attachment figures, but research indicates that fathers play an increasingly significant role, especially in Western societies. Fathers are often seen as more playful, encouraging risk-taking and exploration in children’s interactions.

Distinctive Role: Studies suggest that fathers might have a complementary role in attachment. While mothers often provide nurturing and comfort, fathers may engage in more stimulating, physical play. This varied interaction style can contribute to a child’s social competence.

Research Findings: Some studies suggest that children with involved fathers tend to have better emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes, particularly as they grow older. Lamb (1977) emphasises that fathers can be just as sensitive and responsive as mothers, especially when they are the primary caregivers.

Changing Perspectives: Increasingly, societal changes have influenced the role of fathers, as more fathers actively participate in caregiving. This is especially relevant as more research highlights that children can form secure attachments to both mothers and fathers.

Evaluation of Attachment Theories

Strengths: Schaffer and Emerson’s stages provide a useful framework for understanding attachment development and account for cultural variations in attachment practices.

Criticisms:

Cultural Bias: Schaffer and Emerson’s findings are based on a sample from working-class families in Glasgow and may not generalise across cultures.

Measuring Attachment: The reliance on observable behaviours like separation and stranger anxiety might oversimplify complex attachment bonds.

Role of the Father: Research on fathers is still evolving. While traditional theories often placed less emphasis on fathers, more recent studies suggest that fathers can play an equally important role in child development.

These concepts form the foundation of understanding attachment in developmental psychology, highlighting the importance of early caregiver-infant interactions, the predictable stages of attachment, and the evolving roles of both parents in a child’s emotional and social growth.