Addiction

This section explores the topic of addiction as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology. These notes cover the description of addiction, risk factors, explanations for nicotine and gambling addiction, and methods for reducing addiction, including theories of behaviour change.

Describing Addiction

Physical and Psychological Dependence

Physical Dependence: The body becomes reliant on a substance, and its absence leads to withdrawal symptoms (e.g., sweating, nausea). Physical dependence is a strong indicator of addiction, as the individual experiences cravings and physical discomfort without the substance.

Psychological Dependence: A strong mental desire for the substance or behaviour, with the belief that it is essential for well-being or happiness. Psychological dependence can lead to compulsive use even in the absence of physical symptoms.

Tolerance

Tolerance occurs when a person requires an increased amount of the substance to achieve the same effect, as the body becomes desensitised to it. Tolerance can lead to escalation of use, increasing the risk of addiction.

Withdrawal Syndrome

Withdrawal symptoms occur when the substance or behaviour is reduced or stopped. Symptoms vary depending on the addiction but often include physical and psychological distress. Withdrawal syndrome reinforces continued use to avoid discomfort.

Risk Factors in the Development of Addiction

Genetic Vulnerability

Genetics can predispose individuals to addiction by influencing factors like impulsivity and dopamine regulation. Twin studies show higher concordance rates of addiction in identical twins, suggesting a genetic link.

Stress

Chronic stress and exposure to stressors increase the likelihood of addiction, as individuals may turn to substances or addictive behaviours to cope. Traumatic life events, such as abuse, are significant predictors of addiction.

Personality

Certain personality traits, such as high impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and neuroticism, are associated with higher addiction risk. These traits can lead to behaviours that seek immediate rewards, making addictive activities appealing.

Family Influences

Family dynamics and parental attitudes can influence addiction risk. Children raised in families with permissive attitudes towards substances or addictive behaviours, or in families with addiction history, are more likely to develop addictions.

Peer Influence

Peer pressure and the desire for social acceptance can lead to addiction. Adolescents are especially susceptible to peer influence, as peer groups often shape attitudes and behaviours regarding substance use and addictive activities.

Explanations for Nicotine Addiction

Brain Neurochemistry

Dopamine: Nicotine stimulates the release of dopamine in the brain's reward pathway, creating feelings of pleasure and reinforcing the behaviour. Over time, nicotine changes brain chemistry, leading to dependence as the brain expects dopamine surges from nicotine use.

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors (nAChRs): Nicotine binds to these receptors, releasing dopamine and other neurotransmitters, which contribute to mood enhancement and relaxation. Repeated exposure leads to receptor desensitisation and increased cravings.

Learning Theory and Smoking Behaviour

Operant Conditioning: Nicotine provides positive reinforcement (euphoria) and negative reinforcement (reduction of withdrawal symptoms), making smoking behaviour more likely to be repeated.

Classical Conditioning and Cue Reactivity: Smoking is often associated with environmental cues (e.g., certain places, people, or activities). These cues trigger cravings through cue reactivity, as the brain associates them with nicotine use.

Explanations for Gambling Addiction

Learning Theory

Partial and Variable Reinforcement: Gambling often uses variable-ratio reinforcement, where rewards are unpredictable. This schedule makes behaviour resistant to extinction, as gamblers persist in hopes of a win.

Positive Reinforcement: Winning money or experiencing excitement reinforces gambling behaviour. Losses may also be ignored if the occasional win provides enough reward.

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Bias: Gamblers often have distorted thinking patterns, such as:

Illusion of Control: Belief that they can influence random outcomes.

Gambler’s Fallacy: Belief that a losing streak increases the chance of a win.

Selective Recall: Remembering wins more than losses, reinforcing the belief that gambling is profitable.

Reducing Addiction

Drug Therapy

Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT): Replaces nicotine through patches or gum to reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms. It gradually weans individuals off nicotine.

Medication for Alcoholism: Medications like naltrexone and acamprosate block the euphoric effects of alcohol and reduce cravings.

Opioid Antagonists: Block dopamine release in response to addictive substances, reducing the reinforcement of the behaviour.

Behavioural Interventions

Aversion Therapy: Creates a negative association with the addictive substance by pairing it with unpleasant stimuli. For instance, alcohol might be paired with nausea-inducing drugs to reduce the desire to drink.

Covert Sensitisation: Uses imagery rather than actual experiences. Individuals imagine the negative consequences of engaging in the addictive behaviour, which helps to reduce cravings by building a mental aversion.

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive Restructuring: Identifies and challenges irrational thoughts, such as cognitive biases in gambling addiction, helping individuals understand and change distorted thinking patterns.

Behavioural Skills Training: Teaches coping strategies and relapse prevention techniques, which help individuals resist addictive urges and develop healthier coping mechanisms.

Theories of Behaviour Change Applied to Addiction

Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

TPB suggests that behaviour is guided by intentions, which are influenced by:

Attitudes: Personal views on the behaviour (e.g., beliefs about the health impacts of smoking).

Subjective Norms: Beliefs about what others think of the behaviour (e.g., perceived peer approval of gambling).

Perceived Behavioural Control: Confidence in one’s ability to change (e.g., belief in one's control over quitting smoking).

Strong intentions to quit, influenced by positive attitudes towards quitting, supportive social norms, and high perceived control, can lead to a reduction in addictive behaviour.

Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model of Behaviour Change

This model describes the stages individuals go through when changing addictive behaviours:

Precontemplation: No intention to change, as the individual may not recognise a problem.

Contemplation: Awareness of a problem and thinking about change, but without commitment.

Preparation: Ready to take action and planning steps to change.

Action: Actively modifying behaviour, such as quitting smoking or seeking therapy.

Maintenance: Sustaining behaviour change and avoiding relapse.

Termination: Complete confidence in not returning to the addictive behaviour, achieving full independence from it.

Summary

The Addiction module in A-level Psychology explores the nature of addiction, covering both physical and psychological dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal. Risk factors such as genetic vulnerability, stress, personality, family and peer influence play significant roles in addiction development. Explanations for nicotine and gambling addiction include brain neurochemistry, learning theory, and cognitive theory, all of which provide insights into how these addictions are maintained.

Treatment approaches include drug therapies, behavioural interventions like aversion therapy, and cognitive-behavioural strategies such as CBT. Additionally, behaviour change models like the Theory of Planned Behaviour and Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model offer frameworks for understanding how individuals can move through stages of change to overcome addiction,; illustrating that a variety of biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to both the development and management of addictive behaviours.