Aggression

This section explores the topic of aggression as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology. These notes cover biological, psychological, and social explanations for aggression, institutional and media influences, and the role of desensitisation, disinhibition, and cognitive priming.

Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms in Aggression

Neural Mechanisms

Limbic System: A collection of brain structures (including the amygdala and hypothalamus) involved in emotion regulation. The amygdala plays a crucial role in evaluating and responding to threats, and hyperactivity in the amygdala has been linked to aggressive responses.

Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that inhibits aggressive impulses by calming neural activity. Low serotonin levels are associated with reduced impulse control and higher aggression, as seen in studies where individuals with low serotonin levels exhibit more aggressive behaviour.

Hormonal Mechanisms

Testosterone: A hormone linked to aggression, especially in males, where higher testosterone levels correlate with increased aggression. Research suggests that testosterone influences areas of the brain associated with controlling aggression, such as the amygdala.

Genetic Factors in Aggression

The MAOA Gene (Warrior Gene)

The MAOA gene is involved in the metabolism of serotonin. A variant known as MAOA-L produces less MAOA enzyme, leading to higher serotonin breakdown and is linked to increased aggression. Research indicates that individuals with the MAOA-L variant may display more aggressive behaviour, particularly when provoked or exposed to environmental stressors.

Twin and Adoption Studies

Studies on twins and adoptees suggest a genetic component to aggression, with higher concordance rates of aggression in monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins, indicating that genetics may play a role in aggressive tendencies.

Ethological Explanation of Aggression

Innate Releasing Mechanisms (IRMs) and Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs)

IRMs are biological processes triggered by specific stimuli, leading to a fixed sequence of behaviours called Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs). For example, animals may display ritualistic aggression to establish dominance without actual harm. FAPs are thought to be instinctual and resistant to change, serving an evolutionary function by ensuring survival and reproduction.

Evolutionary Explanation of Human Aggression

Aggression in humans may have evolved to improve survival and reproductive success. Mate Retention: Aggressive behaviours can prevent infidelity and deter rivals, enhancing the likelihood of reproductive success. Status and Dominance: Aggression may also confer social status, increasing access to resources and mates, both crucial for survival and reproduction.

Social Psychological Explanations of Aggression

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

This theory suggests that frustration, arising when goals are blocked, leads to aggression. Aggression acts as a cathartic release for frustration, though displaced aggression may occur if the source of frustration cannot be directly targeted. For example, if someone is angry with their boss, they may instead show aggression at home, where it feels safer.

Social Learning Theory (SLT) as Applied to Aggression

Bandura's SLT proposes that aggression is learned through observing others and is reinforced by vicarious reinforcement (observing others being rewarded for aggression). For example, children who observe aggressive models (e.g., parents or media figures) are more likely to imitate these behaviours, especially if they see them rewarded.

De-individuation

De-individuation occurs when individuals lose their sense of self-awareness and accountability, often in group settings. This reduced self-regulation can lead to aggressive behaviour. Examples include riots or online aggression, where anonymity can reduce personal responsibility, leading individuals to act more aggressively than they typically would.

Institutional Aggression in the Context of Prisons

 Dispositional Explanation (Importation Model)

This model posits that aggression within prisons reflects the characteristics of inmates rather than the prison environment itself. Traits such as past violent behaviour, personality disorders, or gang affiliations are "imported" into the prison setting, leading to aggressive behaviour among inmates.

Situational Explanation (Deprivation Model)

According to this model, the prison environment itself (deprivation of autonomy, privacy, and resources) causes stress and frustration, leading to aggression. Situational factors like overcrowding, lack of meaningful activities, and oppressive prison management can also increase aggression among prisoners.

Media Influences on Aggression

Effects of Computer Games

Violent computer games have been associated with increased aggression due to their immersive and interactive nature, where players actively engage in violent actions. Studies suggest that prolonged exposure to violent games can increase aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviour, particularly in young people.

Desensitisation

Desensitisation refers to a reduction in emotional responsiveness to violence due to repeated exposure, such as through violent media. Individuals become less sensitive to violence, viewing it as normal and more acceptable, which may increase aggressive behaviours as a result.

Disinhibition

Media exposure can weaken societal norms against aggression. This disinhibition effect means individuals become more likely to act aggressively, as they feel less constrained by social norms. In violent media, aggressive acts are often portrayed without consequences, making viewers more inclined to adopt similar behaviours.

Cognitive Priming

Cognitive priming refers to the activation of aggressive thoughts and memories after exposure to violent media. These thoughts create a mental “script” that individuals may subconsciously follow when encountering situations similar to those they have observed in media, increasing the likelihood of aggression.

Summary

The Aggression module in A-level Psychology explores biological, psychological, and social explanations for aggressive behaviour. Neural and hormonal factors such as serotonin, testosterone, and the amygdala are linked to aggression, while genetic factors like the MAOA gene play a role in predisposing individuals to aggression. Ethological theories suggest aggression may have evolved as an adaptive behaviour, while social psychological theories like the frustration-aggression hypothesis, SLT, and de-individuation explain how aggression can be learned and triggered by social contexts.

In institutional settings like prisons, both individual traits (dispositional factors) and environmental conditions (situational factors) influence aggression levels. Media influences such as violent video games and repeated exposure to violence can increase aggression through processes like desensitisation, disinhibition, and cognitive priming. Understanding these factors provides a comprehensive view of the complex causes and effects of aggression, as well as potential interventions to manage aggressive behaviours in society.