Cognition and Development

This section explores the topic of Cognition and Development as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology. These notes cover key theories and research, including Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, Baillargeon’s research on early infant abilities, and the development of social cognition.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Key Concepts in Piaget’s Theory

Schemas: Mental frameworks or cognitive structures that organise information. Schemas help individuals make sense of the world, adapting and expanding with experience.

Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas without altering them. E.g., a child recognising different types of dogs as "dogs."

Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information. E.g., a child learning that not all four-legged animals are dogs.

Equilibration: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to achieve a stable understanding. Cognitive development is driven by the need to maintain equilibrium when confronted with new information.

Piaget’s Stages of Intellectual Development

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)

Key Characteristics: Infants understand the world through sensory experiences and actions.

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. Achieved around 8 months.

Pre-operational Stage (2–7 years):

Key Characteristics: Development of language and symbolic thought; thinking is still intuitive and egocentric.

Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing things from another person’s perspective. Demonstrated through the "three mountains task."

Conservation: The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance (e.g., water in different-shaped containers). Children in this stage typically lack conservation skills.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years)

Key Characteristics: Children develop logical thinking about concrete events, can perform mental operations, and understand conservation.

Conservation: Children now understand that properties like mass and volume remain consistent despite changes in form.

Class Inclusion: The ability to classify objects into hierarchical categories, understanding that a subset can belong to a larger set (e.g., recognising that roses are both flowers and a specific type of flower).

Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

Key Characteristics: Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning develop. Adolescents can think about theoretical situations and reason about abstract concepts.

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning: Ability to form hypotheses and systematically test them.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Key Concepts in Vygotsky’s Theory

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other but cannot yet complete alone. Learning within this zone enables cognitive development.

Scaffolding: Support provided by a teacher or more capable peer to help the child progress through their ZPD. Scaffolding can include techniques such as simplifying tasks, providing hints, or offering encouragement, gradually reduced as the child becomes more competent.

Role of Social and Cultural Factors

Vygotsky emphasised that cognitive development is a social process, heavily influenced by culture. Children learn through interactions with others, particularly those who are more experienced.

Baillargeon’s Explanation of Early Infant Abilities

Knowledge of the Physical World

Baillargeon challenged Piaget’s view of infant abilities, suggesting that infants possess a much earlier understanding of physical properties, like object permanence and solidity.

Violation of Expectation (VoE) Research

Baillargeon used VoE experiments to assess infants’ knowledge of the physical world. Infants are shown an “expected” and an “unexpected” event; if they look longer at the unexpected event, it suggests they have an understanding of how things should behave.

Example Study: Baillargeon’s "drawbridge" experiment demonstrated that infants as young as 4 months appear surprised when an object seems to pass through a solid barrier, indicating an early understanding of object permanence and solidity.

The Development of Social Cognition

Selman’s Levels of Perspective-Taking

Selman proposed that children progress through stages of perspective-taking, where they develop the ability to understand others' thoughts and feelings:

Level 0 (Undifferentiated) (3–6 years): Children understand that others have different perspectives but confuse their perspective with that of others.

Level 1 (Social Informational) (6–8 years): Children understand that others may have different information that influences their views.

Level 2 (Self-Reflective) (8–10 years): Children can consider others' viewpoints and realise they are reciprocal.

Level 3 (Mutual) (10–12 years): Children can view a situation from a third-party perspective.

Level 4 (Societal) (12+ years): Individuals consider perspectives in the context of broader social norms and values.

Theory of Mind (ToM)

Definition: The ability to attribute mental states (thoughts, feelings, beliefs) to oneself and others, recognising that these can differ.

Sally-Anne Study: Baron-Cohen et al. (1985) used this study to test Theory of Mind in children with autism and neurotypical children. Neurotypical children typically understood that Sally would look in the original location for her marble (reflecting ToM), while many children with autism did not, suggesting ToM difficulties are linked to autism.

Theory of Mind as an Explanation for Autism

Difficulties with ToM may underlie social communication issues in individuals with autism, as they may struggle to infer the thoughts and intentions of others.

Mirror Neuron System and Social Cognition

Mirror Neurons: Neurons that activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action.

Role in Social Cognition: Mirror neurons may facilitate empathy, imitation, and understanding of others' actions and intentions. They are thought to play a role in understanding emotions and may be less active in individuals with autism.

Summary

This module examines cognitive development from early infancy through to adolescence, with a focus on how children learn to think, perceive, and understand others. Piaget and Vygotsky provide foundational theories on cognitive development, while Baillargeon’s research offers insights into infant cognition. Social cognition development is explored through Selman’s levels of perspective-taking, Theory of Mind research, and the potential role of mirror neurons, with implications for understanding autism.