Forensic Psychology

This section explores the topic of Forensic Psychology. These notes cover offender profiling, biological and psychological explanations for offending behaviour, and approaches to dealing with offending. The Forensic Psychology module examines various aspects of criminal behaviour, covering profiling methods, biological and psychological explanations, and methods for addressing offending behaviour.

Offender Profiling

Top-Down Approach

Originated with the FBI, the top-down approach classifies offenders based on pre-existing typologies.

Organised Offenders: Typically show high levels of planning, control, and precision. They may be socially competent, intelligent, and lead more stable lives. Crime scenes tend to show little evidence, as these offenders are careful and methodical.

Disorganised Offenders: Tend to act impulsively, with little planning. They may have lower social and intellectual competence and leave more evidence at the crime scene. Crimes often occur close to their residence.

Bottom-Up Approach

Developed in the UK, this data-driven approach builds a profile from details specific to each case rather than using broad categories.

Investigative Psychology: Analyses patterns of behaviour and characteristics based on statistical data from crime scenes. It examines aspects like interpersonal coherence (consistency in behaviour across crimes) and forensic awareness (understanding of police procedures).

Geographical Profiling: Focuses on the location of crimes to infer information about the offender’s base of operations, often using the concept of a “crime map.” It assumes offenders are likely to commit crimes near their residence (spatial consistency) and can be used to predict the likely area in which an offender lives.

Biological Explanations of Offending Behaviour

Historical Approach (Atavistic Form)

Proposed by Lombroso, this theory suggests that criminals are biologically distinct from non-criminals and can be identified by physical characteristics (e.g., strong jawline, high cheekbones). This “atavistic” form implies criminals are evolutionary throwbacks.

Though outdated and criticised for scientific inaccuracy and bias, this theory was one of the earliest attempts to apply scientific principles to criminology.

Genetics

Studies suggest that genetic factors may contribute to offending behaviour. Twin studies show higher concordance rates for criminality in identical twins, implying a genetic basis. Adoption studies also indicate that biological parents with criminal histories increase the likelihood of offending behaviour in their offspring.

MAOA Gene: Known as the “warrior gene,” this gene is linked to aggressive behaviour. Low activity in the MAOA gene has been associated with increased aggression and violent behaviour.

Neural Explanations

Abnormalities in brain function, particularly in the prefrontal cortex (associated with impulse control) and the amygdala (linked to emotional regulation), may be linked to offending behaviour.

Neurotransmitters: Low levels of serotonin are linked to impulsivity and aggression, both risk factors for offending. Dopamine dysregulation has also been implicated in increased risk-taking and reward-seeking behaviours.

Psychological Explanations of Offending Behaviour

Eysenck’s Theory of the Criminal Personality

Eysenck proposed that criminals have a distinct personality profile, characterised by high levels of extraversion (sensation-seeking), neuroticism (emotional instability), and psychoticism (lack of empathy). He argued that these traits predispose individuals to offending due to lower conditioning to social norms and reduced impulse control.

Cognitive Explanations

Level of Moral Reasoning: Based on Kohlberg’s theory, individuals who offend are often found to operate at a lower level of moral reasoning, focusing on personal gain rather than social rules.

Cognitive Distortions

Hostile Attribution Bias: The tendency to perceive others’ actions as hostile, leading to aggressive or defensive behaviour.

Minimalisation: Downplaying the severity of an offence or the impact on victims, allowing offenders to justify or rationalise their actions.

Differential Association Theory

Proposed by Sutherland, this theory argues that criminal behaviour is learned through association with others who have pro-criminal attitudes. Frequency, duration, and intensity of these associations increase the likelihood of offending. Offending is thus seen as a product of socialisation rather than personality.

Psychodynamic Explanations

According to Freud, unresolved conflicts during the psychosexual stages of development can lead to personality issues that predispose individuals to offending. Specifically, overactive id impulses, stemming from a weak superego (due to lack of a stable parental figure or role model), can lead to a lack of moral constraint and increase the likelihood of offending.

Dealing with Offending Behaviour

Aims of Custodial Sentencing

Deterrence: Serving as a warning to potential offenders.

Incapacitation: Protecting society by removing dangerous individuals.

Retribution: Allowing victims and society to feel justice has been served.

Rehabilitation: Offering offenders a chance to reform and reintegrate into society.

Psychological Effects of Custodial Sentencing

Stress and Depression: High rates of depression, self-harm, and suicide are reported among prisoners.

Institutionalisation: Prisoners may struggle to adapt to life outside prison after long sentences, leading to dependence on the prison environment.

Prisonisation: The adoption of a criminal culture and values in prison, making reintegration more difficult.

Recidivism

Refers to the tendency of offenders to reoffend after serving their sentence. High recidivism rates suggest that prison alone may be ineffective in reducing offending behaviour, pointing to the need for rehabilitation and supportive post-release measures.

Behaviour Modification in Custody

Token Economy Programmes: Based on operant conditioning, prisoners are rewarded with tokens for desirable behaviours (e.g., following rules), which can be exchanged for privileges. This reinforces prosocial behaviour, although critics argue it may have limited effect outside the prison environment.

Anger Management

Anger management programmes aim to help offenders manage aggression and frustration through cognitive-behavioural techniques.

Cognitive Preparation: Identifying triggers and developing awareness of one’s thought patterns.

Skill Acquisition: Learning techniques for dealing with anger, such as relaxation.

Application Practice: Practising new skills through role-playing scenarios.

While anger management can reduce aggression, it may not directly address other factors influencing offending behaviour.

Restorative Justice Programmes

Restorative justice focuses on reconciliation between offender and victim. It involves a meeting where the offender takes responsibility and the victim has a chance to express the impact of the offence. This approach seeks to reduce reoffending by fostering empathy in the offender and helping victims heal.

This approach is often voluntary and can help offenders understand the harm caused, though it may not be suitable for all types of crimes or offenders.

Summary

Offender Profiling distinguishes between organised and disorganised offenders (top-down) and uses investigative and geographical methods in the bottom-up approach.

Biological Explanations consider genetic factors (such as the MAOA gene) and neural structures like the prefrontal cortex, as well as neurotransmitter imbalances.

Psychological Explanations include Eysenck’s criminal personality theory, cognitive distortions (hostile attribution bias and minimalisation), moral reasoning levels, and social factors (differential association theory).

Dealing with Offending Behaviour involves custodial sentencing, which aims at deterrence, incapacitation, retribution, and rehabilitation but also has negative psychological effects. Other approaches, such as behaviour modification, anger management, and restorative justice, provide alternatives or supplements to custodial sentences, aiming to reduce recidivism and foster long-term behavioural change.

This comprehensive approach highlights the complexity of addressing criminal behaviour through both preventive and rehabilitative strategies.