Gender

This section explores Gender as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology. These notes cover key concepts in sex and gender, biological influences, cognitive and psychodynamic explanations, social learning, and atypical gender development.

Sex and Gender

Sex vs Gender

Sex: Biological status as male or female, determined by chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.

Gender: Psychological and cultural differences associated with masculinity or femininity. Gender is often seen as more fluid and socially influenced.

Sex-Role Stereotypes

Widely held beliefs about what is considered appropriate behaviour for males and females.

These stereotypes are often reinforced by family, media, and culture, potentially limiting individual behaviours.

Androgyny and Measuring Androgyny

Androgyny: Having a balance of masculine and feminine traits. It is associated with psychological flexibility and well-being.

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI): A self-report measure that assesses levels of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. Participants rate themselves on traits considered stereotypically masculine or feminine, and those with high scores on both dimensions are classified as androgynous.

The Role of Chromosomes and Hormones in Sex and Gender

Chromosomes

XX Chromosomes: Typically lead to female development.

XY Chromosomes: Typically lead to male development. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers male differentiation.

Hormones and Their Influence

Testosterone: Primarily associated with male development. Influences the development of male sex organs and is linked to aggression and competitiveness.

Oestrogen: Primarily associated with female development, influencing secondary sexual characteristics and mood regulation.

Oxytocin: Known as the "love hormone," plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and emotional connection, particularly strong in females.

Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns

Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY): Affects males who have an extra X chromosome. Characteristics include reduced body hair, breast tissue development, and learning difficulties.

Turner’s Syndrome (XO): Affects females who have only one X chromosome. Characteristics include short stature, infertility, and certain cognitive and social difficulties.

Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development

Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Development

Stage 1 - Gender Identity (around age 2-3): Children recognise their gender but may not understand it as stable.

Stage 2 - Gender Stability (around age 4-5): Children understand that gender is stable over time but may still believe it changes with appearance or activity.

Stage 3 - Gender Constancy (around age 6-7): Children understand that gender remains consistent across time and situations, leading to a stronger commitment to gender roles.

Gender Schema Theory (Martin and Halverson)

Proposes that children develop gender schemas, or mental frameworks, based on social learning.

These schemas guide a child's understanding of what is considered appropriate behaviour for each gender, influencing attention and memory for gender-consistent information.

Psychodynamic Explanation of Gender Development

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Suggests that gender development occurs during the phallic stage (ages 3-6) through the resolution of the Oedipus or Electra complex.

Oedipus Complex (Boys)

Boys experience unconscious desire for their mother and jealousy towards their father, leading to fear of castration.

To resolve this conflict, they identify with their father, internalising male gender roles.

Electra Complex (Girls)

Girls experience "penis envy" and develop an unconscious attraction towards their father.

Girls eventually identify with their mother, adopting female gender roles as they internalise this identity.

Identification and Internalisation

Through resolving these complexes, children identify with their same-sex parent and internalise gender roles and behaviours.

Social Learning Theory as Applied to Gender Development

Modelling and Imitation

Children observe and imitate gendered behaviours of role models, particularly same-gender parents or figures.

They are more likely to imitate behaviours that are reinforced (rewarded) by others.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Observing others being rewarded or punished for gendered behaviours influences children’s gender-role learning.

If a behaviour is praised, a child is more likely to repeat it.

Direct Reinforcement and Punishment

Parents and peers may reinforce gender-appropriate behaviours (e.g., boys are praised for playing with trucks) and discourage non-gender-typical behaviours.

Influence of Culture and Media

Culture: Cultural norms play a significant role in shaping gender roles, with some societies having stricter expectations than others.

Media: Reinforces gender stereotypes by consistently portraying men and women in traditional roles, which children then internalise.

Atypical Gender Development

Gender Dysphoria

A condition where an individual feels a strong disconnection between their assigned biological sex and their gender identity.

Individuals may experience significant distress and desire to live as the opposite gender.

Biological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

Brain-Sex Theory: Suggests that differences in brain structure or function (such as in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis) may contribute to gender dysphoria.

Genetic Factors: Research suggests that genetic influences could also play a role, as gender dysphoria is more common in some families.

Social Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

Environmental and social factors, such as childhood experiences and parental attitudes, may contribute.

Psychosocial stressors or family dynamics may lead to difficulties in accepting one’s biological gender.

Summary

This module examines the complexities of gender, drawing on biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, and social perspectives. It covers the biological basis of sex and gender, the psychological theories explaining gender development, and the challenges related to atypical gender conditions, emphasising both innate and learned influences on gender identity and roles.