Relationships

This section explores the topic  of Relationships as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology, specifically focusing on Relationships. These notes include evolutionary explanations, factors affecting attraction, theories of romantic relationships, relationship breakdown, virtual relationships, and parasocial relationships.

Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences

Sexual Selection and Human Reproductive Behaviour

Sexual Selection: A form of natural selection where individuals with traits attractive to potential mates are more likely to reproduce.

Intra-Sexual Selection: Competition within the same sex for access to mates (often seen in males). This can lead to aggression, status-seeking, or displays of strength to win over a mate.

Inter-Sexual Selection: Preferences of one sex for certain qualities in potential mates (often seen in females). Females may prefer males with resources or good genes, ensuring the survival and health of offspring.

Human Reproductive Behaviour: Evolutionary psychology suggests that males tend to prefer younger, physically attractive females as indicators of fertility, while females may prefer older, resource-rich males to ensure offspring support.

Factors Affecting Attraction in Romantic Relationships

Self-Disclosure

The process of sharing personal, intimate details with a partner.

Increased self-disclosure can lead to greater intimacy and trust, positively impacting relationship satisfaction.

According to Social Penetration Theory, relationships develop as self-disclosure increases in depth and breadth.

Physical Attractiveness and the Matching Hypothesis

Physical Attractiveness: Often serves as an initial factor in attraction. The "halo effect" suggests that physically attractive people are also perceived as having positive personal qualities.

Matching Hypothesis: Proposes that people are more likely to form relationships with others who are similar in physical attractiveness, as this reduces the risk of rejection and increases relationship satisfaction.

Filter Theory

Filter Theory (Kerckhoff and Davis, 1962): Suggests that relationships progress through a series of filters.

Social Demography: Geographic location, social class, religion, etc., narrow down the pool of potential partners.

Similarity in Attitudes: Important in the early stages; shared values and beliefs increase compatibility.

Complementarity: Later in relationships, partners seek complementary traits, where each person’s strengths support the other’s weaknesses, providing balance.

Theories of Romantic Relationships

Social Exchange Theory (SET)

Assumes that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis.

Individuals strive to maximise rewards (e.g., affection, support) and minimise costs (e.g., conflict, time).

A comparison level (CL) is developed based on past experiences and expectations; relationships are deemed satisfying if rewards outweigh costs compared to this CL.

Equity Theory

Suggests that perceived fairness, rather than simply maximising rewards, is crucial for relationship satisfaction.

Equitable Relationship: Each partner’s ratio of benefits to contributions is perceived as fair.

Inequity can lead to distress, prompting efforts to restore balance or end the relationship.

Rusbult’s Investment Model

Extends SET by introducing Investment as a key factor influencing commitment.

Components

Satisfaction: Based on the level of rewards relative to costs.

Comparison with Alternatives: Judging if an alternative partner or being alone could provide more satisfaction.

Investment Size: Tangible and intangible resources invested in the relationship (e.g., time, emotions).

High commitment results from high satisfaction, high investment, and low quality of alternatives.

Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown

Describes the breakdown of relationships in stages

Intra-Psychic Phase: Dissatisfaction is internalised; the partner reflects on the relationship’s problems.

Dyadic Phase: Dissatisfaction is expressed to the partner, potentially leading to conflict or discussion.

Social Phase: The breakup becomes public; friends and family become involved.

Grave-Dressing Phase: Partners develop personal narratives of the breakup to protect self-esteem and move on.

Virtual Relationships in Social Media

Self-Disclosure in Virtual Relationships

Online relationships can facilitate more rapid self-disclosure due to anonymity and asynchronicity (non-simultaneous communication), reducing social risks.

People may disclose more personal information, leading to quick intimacy development compared to face-to-face relationships.

Effects of Absence of Gating

Gating: Physical or social barriers that could inhibit relationship development (e.g., appearance, social anxiety).

Online interactions lack these gates, allowing relationships to form based on personal connection rather than superficial factors.

This can lead to more authentic self-presentation and deeper connections.

Parasocial Relationships

Levels of Parasocial Relationships

Entertainment-Social: The most basic level; the individual is entertained by and enjoys following a celebrity.

Intense-Personal: Involves stronger feelings; individuals may feel a personal bond with the celebrity.

Borderline Pathological: Involves obsessive behaviours or unrealistic beliefs about the celebrity.

Absorption-Addiction Model

Explains parasocial relationships as a means of compensating for personal deficiencies.

Absorption: The individual becomes preoccupied with the celebrity to fulfil a need for identity.

Addiction: The relationship escalates to more extreme behaviours, such as following their life obsessively or spending money on memorabilia.

Attachment Theory Explanation

Suggests that parasocial relationships may be influenced by attachment styles:

Insecure-Resistant individuals may be more likely to form parasocial bonds, as they seek closeness but fear rejection.

Insecure-Avoidant individuals are less likely to engage, as they avoid intimacy altogether.

Parasocial relationships can provide a safe way for individuals to experience emotional closeness without the risk of real rejection.

Summary

This module covers how evolutionary and psychological theories explain romantic relationships and attraction. It also includes modern contexts, such as virtual and parasocial relationships, reflecting the impact of technology and media on human connections.