Stress

This section explores the topic of Stress as part of the Psychology module Issues and Options in Psychology. These notes cover the physiology of stress, its role in illness, sources, measurement, individual differences, and methods of managing and coping with stress.

The Physiology of Stress

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Proposed by Hans Selye, GAS describes the body's response to stress through three stages:

Alarm: The initial reaction to a stressor, triggering the "fight-or-flight" response.

Resistance: The body attempts to adapt to ongoing stress, maintaining a heightened state of arousal.

Exhaustion: Prolonged stress depletes resources, leading to decreased immunity and increased vulnerability to illness.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) System

Activated by chronic stress. When the hypothalamus detects stress, it releases CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone), stimulating the pituitary gland to release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).

ACTH then prompts the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, a hormone that provides energy by increasing blood glucose but can suppress immune function if prolonged.

Sympathomedullary Pathway (SAM)

Activated by acute stress. The hypothalamus triggers the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline.

These hormones prepare the body for immediate action, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, and directing energy to essential muscles.

Role of Cortisol

Cortisol is essential for providing energy during stress by mobilising glucose. However, excessive cortisol levels due to chronic stress can lead to negative effects such as reduced immune function, increased blood pressure, and risk of cardiovascular issues.

The Role of Stress in Illness

Immunosuppression

Chronic stress suppresses the immune system, making the body more susceptible to infections. Cortisol, a key hormone in the stress response, can inhibit the production of white blood cells, weakening immunity and delaying recovery from illnesses.

Cardiovascular Disorders

Stress can contribute to cardiovascular problems, including hypertension (high blood pressure), coronary heart disease, and strokes. High adrenaline and noradrenaline levels cause increased heart rate and blood pressure, putting strain on the cardiovascular system.

Sources of Stress

Life Changes

Significant life events, such as divorce, moving house, or job loss, require adjustment and can be sources of stress. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) by Holmes and Rahe measures the stress of various life changes and correlates high scores with an increased risk of illness.

Daily Hassles

Minor everyday irritations, such as traffic jams or arguments, can accumulate and lead to high stress levels. Research suggests that daily hassles may have a more significant effect on stress levels than life changes because they are more frequent and can be harder to manage.

Workplace Stress

Workload: Excessive or insufficient workload can lead to stress, with excessive work leading to burnout and insufficient work causing boredom and dissatisfaction.

Control: Lack of control in the workplace (e.g., rigid deadlines, strict supervision) is linked to higher stress. According to the demand-control model, high job demands coupled with low control increase stress risk.

Measuring Stress

Self-Report Scales

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS): Measures stress by assessing the impact of life changes, assigning "life change units" to events.

Hassles and Uplifts Scale: Assesses daily hassles and positive events (uplifts) to understand how they impact stress levels over time.

Physiological Measures

Skin Conductance Response (SCR): Measures the electrical conductivity of the skin, which increases with sweat production when an individual is stressed. Higher SCR indicates higher arousal and stress levels.

Individual Differences in Stress

Personality Types

Type A: Competitive, time-conscious, and hostile individuals, who are more prone to stress and associated with higher risk of cardiovascular disease.

Type B: Relaxed, patient, and non-competitive individuals, less prone to stress and related health risks.

Type C: Cooperative, unassertive individuals who may suppress emotions, particularly anger. Type C is thought to be linked to a higher risk of illnesses like cancer.

Hardiness

Proposed by Kobasa, hardiness is a personality trait that makes individuals more resilient to stress. It involves:

Commitment: A strong sense of purpose and involvement in life.

Challenge: Viewing stressors as opportunities for growth rather than threats.

Control: A belief in one’s ability to influence events.

Managing and Coping with Stress

Drug Therapy

Benzodiazepines (BZs): Anti-anxiety drugs that enhance the effects of GABA (a calming neurotransmitter), which reduces arousal and induces relaxation.

Beta Blockers: Drugs that reduce the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline, lowering heart rate and blood pressure. They are useful for managing the physical symptoms of stress without affecting the brain directly.

Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)

A cognitive-behavioural approach to manage stress by helping individuals develop coping skills. It involves:

Conceptualisation: Identifying sources of stress and individual responses.

Skill Acquisition and Rehearsal: Learning and practising coping strategies.

Application: Applying skills to real-life situations to build resilience.

Biofeedback

A technique that involves monitoring physiological processes (e.g., heart rate) and providing feedback to the individual. People learn to control physiological responses by recognising and reducing stress responses.

Gender Differences in Coping with Stress

Research indicates that men are more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies, while women are more likely to use emotion-focused coping strategies. These differences may be due to socialisation and the types of stressors typically faced by men and women.

The Role of Social Support

Social support can help individuals cope with stress and reduce its negative impacts on health. Types of social support include:

Instrumental Support: Practical help, such as providing assistance with tasks.

Emotional Support: Offering empathy, care, and understanding.

Esteem Support: Boosting the individual’s self-esteem and confidence.

Summary

The Stress module in A-level Psychology examines the physiological basis of stress, its health implications, and various sources, including major life changes, daily hassles, and workplace factors. Stress can be measured through self-report scales and physiological responses like skin conductance. Individual differences, including personality type and hardiness, impact stress experiences and responses. Coping mechanisms include drug therapy, cognitive-behavioural methods like SIT, and biofeedback, with variations in coping strategies observed across genders. Social support is crucial in managing stress, with different types of support providing practical and emotional benefits.