Psychopathology Quiz

Abnormality refers to patterns of behaviour, thoughts, or emotions that deviate significantly from what is considered typical or acceptable within a society. It can be defined through different models, such as statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, and deviation from ideal mental health.

This definition suggests that a person is abnormal if they are unable to perform daily tasks or meet basic life requirements, such as self-care, work, or maintaining relationships. The inability to cope with everyday demands can indicate psychological dysfunction.

The behavioural characteristics of phobias include avoidance of the feared object or situation, as well as panic or anxiety responses when exposed to the object or situation. Individuals with phobias may also experience freezing or trembling.

Cognitive characteristics of depression include negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future (often referred to as the ‘negative triad’), and difficulties in concentration, memory, and decision-making. Depressed individuals may also engage in catastrophic thinking and focus on perceived flaws or failures.

A common treatment for OCD is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), particularly using a technique called Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP), where patients are gradually exposed to their obsessions and are prevented from performing compulsive behaviours. Drug therapies, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), may also be used.

Statistical Infrequency: Abnormality is defined as behaviours or traits that are rare or statistically unusual. For example, extremely high or low IQ scores would be considered abnormal. However, this definition does not distinguish between harmful and harmless rare traits (e.g., very high intelligence may not be problematic).

Deviation from Social Norms: Behaviour that goes against societal norms is considered abnormal. This definition varies across cultures and changes over time. For example, homosexuality was once considered abnormal in many societies but is now widely accepted.

Failure to Function Adequately: This definition suggests that abnormality is when an individual cannot cope with the demands of daily life, such as maintaining relationships or holding down a job. However, cultural and individual differences can make it hard to define what counts as "adequate" functioning.

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health: According to this definition, abnormality occurs when individuals fail to meet certain criteria of mental well-being, such as self-actualisation or the ability to cope with stress. It provides a positive framework for understanding abnormality, but it’s difficult to apply universally due to differing values.

The behavioural characteristics of depression often include a reduction in activity levels, leading to withdrawal from social situations, hobbies, and work. People may appear physically sluggish or fatigued, and they may experience significant changes in sleep patterns (e.g., insomnia or excessive sleeping). Depressed individuals may also show diminished appetite or, conversely, may overeat as a coping mechanism. In extreme cases, there may be self-harm or suicidal tendencies. These behaviours reflect the impact depression has on day-to-day functioning and physical well-being.

Beck's negative triad is a cognitive model that describes the three key areas where depressed individuals typically have negative thoughts:

Negative view of oneself: They may feel worthless, inadequate, or incapable.

Negative view of the world: They may perceive the world as overwhelming, unfair, or full of obstacles.

Negative view of the future: They may expect things to worsen, leading to a sense of hopelessness. Beck suggested that these persistent negative thought patterns contribute to and maintain depression by shaping an individual’s perception of reality, causing them to interpret situations in a negative light and leading to further emotional distress.

The two-process model, proposed by Mowrer, explains how phobias are acquired and maintained through learning processes:

Classical Conditioning: A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces fear (e.g., a loud noise causing fear). Over time, the neutral stimulus (e.g., a rat) becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits fear.

Operant Conditioning: Once a phobia is learned, the individual may engage in avoidance behaviour, such as staying away from the feared object or situation. Avoidance reduces anxiety, reinforcing the behaviour. This negative reinforcement makes the phobia persist.

Systematic desensitisation is a form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias. It involves three key stages:

• Relaxation Training: The patient learns techniques, such as deep breathing or progressive muscle relaxation, to reduce anxiety.
• Creating an Anxiety Hierarchy: The therapist and patient create a list of feared situations, ranked from least to most anxiety-provoking.
• Gradual Exposure: The patient is gradually exposed to each situation on the hierarchy, starting with the least feared, while using relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety.

Evaluation:

• Strengths: It is a well-established, evidence-based treatment with a high success rate, especially for specific phobias. It is non-invasive and allows for a gradual reduction in anxiety.
• Weaknesses: It may not be as effective for complex phobias, such as social anxiety. It also requires the patient’s active involvement, which might not be suitable for everyone.

• Ellis’s ABC Model: Ellis proposed that depression arises from irrational beliefs that individuals hold about themselves, others, and the world. According to the ABC model:
  • A (Activating event): Something happens that triggers negative thinking.
  • B (Beliefs): The person holds irrational beliefs about the event (e.g., "I must be perfect").
  • C (Consequences): These irrational beliefs lead to emotional and behavioural consequences, such as depression.
• Beck’s Negative Triad: Beck focused on cognitive distortions and the negative thoughts people have about themselves, the world, and the future. The negative triad leads to a pessimistic outlook and contributes to the development and maintenance of depression.

Comparison: Both models focus on negative thinking patterns as a key feature of depression. However, Ellis emphasizes the role of irrational beliefs, while Beck focuses more on cognitive biases and distortions.

Research has shown that OCD tends to run in families, suggesting a genetic component. Twin studies have indicated higher concordance rates for OCD in identical twins compared to fraternal twins, supporting the idea of a genetic predisposition. Specific genes, such as those involved in serotonin regulation, may be implicated in the development of OCD. However, no single gene has been conclusively identified, and it’s likely that multiple genes interact with environmental factors to contribute to the disorder.

Drug therapy, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), is commonly used to treat OCD. SSRIs increase serotonin levels in the brain, which is thought to reduce obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours.

• Strengths: SSRIs are generally well-tolerated and effective for many patients. They are convenient, non-invasive, and can be combined with other treatments like CBT for enhanced outcomes.
• Weaknesses: Drug treatments can have side effects, such as nausea, insomnia, or sexual dysfunction. Additionally, they may only manage symptoms, not cure the underlying disorder. Long-term use may also lead to dependency or tolerance.

The neural explanation of OCD suggests that abnormalities in brain structure and function may contribute to the disorder. Research has implicated areas such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the caudate nucleus, and the thalamus in the development of OCD. The OFC is involved in decision-making and emotional responses, while the caudate nucleus is responsible for filtering out irrelevant thoughts. Dysfunction in these areas can lead to the intrusive thoughts characteristic of OCD. Neurotransmitter imbalances, particularly involving serotonin, may also play a role in the disorder.

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) aims to challenge and change negative thought patterns and behaviours that contribute to depression. The therapist helps the individual identify and dispute irrational or distorted thoughts, replacing them with more balanced and realistic perspectives. CBT also involves behavioural activation, where the person is encouraged to engage in rewarding activities to counteract feelings of hopelessness. Studies show CBT is effective in reducing symptoms of depression and preventing relapse, especially when combined with other treatments like medication.