Definitions & Measurement of Crime & Deviance

Understanding how crime and deviance are defined and measured is crucial for analysing patterns of behaviour, the workings of society, and the impact of law and social norms. This overview will explore key definitions, the concepts of social order and social control, the relativity and social construction of crime and deviance, and the principal methods used to measure crime, alongside their respective strengths and limitations.

Definitions

Crime

Crime refers to behaviour that breaks the formal laws of a society and is punishable by the legal system. Crimes are acts or omissions that are forbidden and sanctioned by the state, such as theft, assault, or fraud. The definition of crime is dependent on the legal framework of a particular society and can change over time as laws are modified.

Deviance

Deviance is behaviour that violates the expected norms or values of a group or society, but is not necessarily illegal. Examples include wearing unconventional clothing, swearing in public, or protesting peacefully. Deviance is a broader concept than crime, as it encompasses acts that may not attract legal penalties but are considered unacceptable or unusual by social standards.

Social Order

Social order refers to the stable state of society where individuals conform to shared norms, values, and rules, leading to predictable and organised social life. Social order is maintained through various mechanisms, enabling societies to function smoothly and avoid chaos.

Social Control

Social control involves the processes and institutions that encourage conformity to societal norms and laws. This can be formal, such as the police, courts, and legal sanctions, or informal, including family, peers, education, and religious institutions, which exert influence through expectations and social pressure.

Relativity and Social Construction of Crime and Deviance

The Relativity of Crime and Deviance

Both crime and deviance are relative concepts; their definitions can change depending on the time period, the society, and the context within a society. What is considered criminal or deviant in one society or era may be viewed as normal or acceptable in another.

• Over Time: Laws and social norms evolve. For example, homosexuality was a criminal offence in the UK until 1967, but is now legal and socially accepted in most contexts.
• Between Societies: Behaviours such as drinking alcohol are legal and socially acceptable in the UK, but are illegal and considered highly deviant in some countries with strict religious laws.
• Within Societies: Different groups within the same society may have varying norms. For instance, what teenagers consider acceptable behaviour may be viewed as deviant by older generations.

The Social Construction of Crime and Deviance

Crime and deviance are socially constructed, meaning they are defined by the collective values, beliefs, and interests of those in power within a society. This perspective suggests that no act is inherently criminal or deviant; it is the reaction of society and its institutions that labels certain behaviours as such. Labelling theory, for instance, highlights how some individuals or groups are more likely to be labelled as deviant due to stereotypes, prejudice, or social status.

Measuring Crime: Methods and Approaches

Measuring crime accurately is essential for understanding its prevalence, patterns, and causes. Sociologists and policymakers rely on several key methods, each with their own advantages and disadvantages.

Official Crime Statistics

Official crime statistics are compiled by government agencies, primarily using two sources in England and Wales: police recorded crime figures and the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW).

• Police Recorded Crime Figures: These statistics record offences reported to and recorded by the police. They cover a wide range of crimes, from theft to violent offences.
• Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW): This is a large-scale annual survey asking people about their experiences of crime, including incidents not reported to the police. It provides an alternative measure of crime levels and trends.

Advantages

• Provide long-term data for tracking trends and patterns.
• Useful for informing policy decisions and allocating resources.
• CSEW captures unreported crime, offering a broader picture.

Disadvantages

• Police figures underestimate true crime levels due to under-reporting and under-recording (the 'dark figure' of crime).
• Changes in police recording practices or priorities can affect statistics, making comparisons over time difficult.
• CSEW excludes certain populations (e.g., children under 16, institutionalised individuals) and some crime types (e.g., corporate crime).

Victim Surveys

Victim surveys ask individuals about their experiences as victims of crime, whether or not these incidents were reported to the police. The CSEW is the best-known example in England and Wales, but local and specialised victim surveys also exist.

Advantages

• Reveal the extent of unreported and unrecorded crime.
• Provide insight into the impact of crime on victims and reasons for not reporting incidents.
• Can identify patterns for specific groups or areas.

Disadvantages

• Rely on respondents' memory and honesty; recall errors or exaggeration can affect accuracy.
• Some crimes, such as domestic violence or sexual offences, may still be under-reported due to stigma or fear.
• Do not capture crimes without a direct victim (e.g., drug offences, white-collar crime).

Self-Report Studies

Self-report studies involve asking individuals, often young people or specific groups, to disclose their own involvement in criminal or deviant acts, whether detected by authorities or not. These studies aim to uncover the prevalence and nature of offending that may not appear in official statistics.

Advantages

• Highlight the true extent of law-breaking, including minor offences.
• Offer insights into the characteristics and motivations of offenders.
• Can challenge stereotypes and highlight the widespread nature of some forms of deviance.

Disadvantages

• Risk of dishonesty or under-reporting due to fear of consequences or social desirability bias.
• Often focus on less serious offences and specific populations, limiting generalisability.
• Sample sizes may be small, and findings may not reflect wider society.

Summary

The definitions and measurement of crime and deviance are complex and shaped by social, legal, and cultural influences. Both are relative and socially constructed, varying across time, societies, and groups. Measuring crime accurately remains a challenge, with each method; official statistics, victim surveys, and self-report studies, offering valuable but incomplete perspectives. A critical understanding of these concepts and methods is essential for sociological analysis and for developing effective policies to address crime and maintain social order.