Culture and Identity

This section explains culture and identity in relation to A-Level Sociology. These notes explore the topics of: Conceptions of Culture, The Socialisation Process, The Self, Identity and Difference and The Relationships of Identity. 

Different Conceptions of Culture

Sociologists distinguish between various forms of culture, each with distinct characteristics:

Subculture: A group that exists within, but differs from, the dominant culture. Subcultures often have their own norms, values, and practices that may challenge or deviate from mainstream society. Examples include youth subcultures like punk or goth, which express alternative identities through music, fashion, and behaviour.

Mass Culture: Refers to cultural products produced for mass consumption, often associated with mass media. Critics like the Frankfurt School argue that mass culture is superficial, commodified, and designed to maintain the status quo, pacifying the working class and promoting consumerism. It is contrasted with more ‘authentic’ forms of culture like folk culture.

Folk Culture: Traditional, often rural, cultures passed down through generations via oral history, music, and customs. It is typically seen as authentic and community-based, though some sociologists argue it has been eroded by industrialisation and modernisation.

High Culture: Refers to cultural products that are seen as having lasting artistic or intellectual value, such as classical music, fine art, opera, and literature. High culture is often associated with the elite or upper classes and is seen as a mark of distinction and cultural capital (Bourdieu).

Low Culture: Sometimes used pejoratively to describe forms of entertainment considered less intellectually challenging, such as reality TV or tabloids. Low culture is often contrasted with high culture but may be popular with large segments of the population.

Popular Culture: Involves cultural products enjoyed by the majority of people, such as pop music, film, and sports. Unlike high culture, it is more accessible and consumer-driven. Some sociologists, like Strinati, argue that the distinction between high and popular culture is becoming blurred due to postmodernism and media influence.

Global Culture: Refers to cultural products, practices, and values that transcend national boundaries, often driven by globalisation and the spread of media and communication technologies. McLuhan's concept of the "global village" suggests that globalisation brings different cultures into closer contact, creating a more interconnected world. However, this process can also lead to cultural homogenisation, where dominant cultures, such as Western or American culture, overshadow local ones.

The Socialisation Process and the Role of the Agencies of Socialisation

Socialisation is the lifelong process by which individuals learn the norms, values, and customs of their society. There are two main types:

Primary Socialisation: Occurs in the early years of life, mainly within the family. During this stage, children learn basic norms, values, and behaviours.

Secondary Socialisation: Continues throughout life and occurs through institutions like schools, peer groups, the media, and workplaces.

Key Agencies of Socialisation include:

Family: The most important agency of primary socialisation, where children learn language, gender roles, and basic social norms. Different family structures (e.g., nuclear, extended) influence the type of socialisation children receive.

Education: Plays a key role in secondary socialisation by teaching formal curriculum (academic knowledge) and informal curriculum (norms and values like punctuality, obedience, and respect for authority). Marxists argue that education reinforces class inequality through the hidden curriculum.

Media: A powerful agent in contemporary society, shaping norms, values, and attitudes. The media and social media play a significant role in constructing gender roles, body image, and reinforcing consumerism.

Peer Groups: Particularly important during adolescence, peer groups provide a space for young people to develop their own identities, often independent of their families. Peer pressure can reinforce conformity or lead to the formation of subcultures.

Religion: Can be a significant source of socialisation, particularly in societies where religious values are central to the social order. It can shape beliefs about morality, gender roles, and authority.

Workplace: An important site of adult socialisation where individuals learn the norms, values, and expectations of their professional roles.

The Self, Identity, and Difference

Self: Sociological concepts of the Self, focus on how individuals perceive themselves and their roles in society. Mead’s concept of the 'self' suggests that identity is developed through interaction with others, using the ideas of the 'I' (our personal identity) and the 'me' (how we are perceived by others).

Identity: Refers to how individuals see themselves and are seen by others. Identity is socially constructed, meaning it is shaped by social interaction, cultural norms, and the expectations of society. Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy suggests that individuals perform their identities in everyday life, managing impressions to fit into societal roles.

Difference: Sociologists emphasise that differences between individuals (e.g., gender, ethnicity, social class) are not natural but socially constructed. For example, femininity and masculinity are learned through socialisation, rather than biologically determined.

The Relationship of Identity to Age, Disability, Ethnicity, Gender, Nationality, Sexuality, and Social Class

Age: Age identity is socially constructed, with different stages of life associated with different expectations (e.g., childhood, adolescence, old age). The meaning of age changes over time and across cultures, influenced by social attitudes and economic factors.

Disability: Disability identity can be shaped by societal attitudes and structures that label and marginalise individuals with impairments. The social model of disability argues that disability is not just about physical impairments but is created by societal barriers that limit individuals' participation in society.

Ethnicity: Ethnic identity is often formed through cultural heritage, language, religion, and shared history. Ethnic minority groups may experience hybrid identities, blending elements of their ethnic culture with mainstream or global culture.

Gender: Gender identity is socially constructed through the process of socialisation, with different expectations and roles assigned to men and women. Feminists argue that gender inequalities are perpetuated through cultural norms and social institutions.

Nationality: National identity is constructed through shared symbols, rituals, and histories that define a nation. Globalisation has led to debates about the weakening of national identities in favour of global or hybrid identities.

Sexuality: Sexual identity relates to how individuals perceive and express their sexual preferences. The gay rights movement and changing societal attitudes have challenged traditional heterosexual norms, leading to more diverse understandings of sexual identity.

Social Class: Class identity is shaped by economic position, but also cultural factors such as lifestyle, tastes, and attitudes. Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital suggests that middle-class individuals possess knowledge and cultural assets that give them advantages in society.

The Relationship of Identity to Production, Consumption, and Globalisation

Production: In industrial societies, identity was often closely tied to production, with individuals identifying themselves by their occupation. Marxists argue that in capitalist societies, workers are alienated from their labour, which affects their sense of identity.

Consumption: In postmodern societies, identity is increasingly shaped by consumption rather than production. Individuals construct their identities through the products they buy and the brands they associate with. Consumer culture promotes individualism and lifestyle choices as key aspects of personal identity.

Globalisation: Globalisation has transformed the way identities are formed. The spread of global media, migration, and communication technologies allows individuals to adopt multiple, hybrid identities. However, globalisation can also lead to a sense of identity crisis, as traditional markers of identity, like nationality or local culture, are eroded.

Summary

Culture can be understood in different ways, from subcultures to global culture, each playing a role in shaping identity.

Socialisation, through agencies like the family, education, media, and peer groups, plays a crucial role in the formation of identity.

Identity is socially constructed and influenced by factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and class.

In contemporary society, identities are shaped by both production and consumption, with globalisation further complicating how people understand themselves and their place in the world.

These concepts provide a framework for understanding how culture and identity are formed, negotiated, and changed within society.