Functionalism Theory

This section explores functionalism theory. Functionalism is a sociological perspective that views society as a complex system made up of interrelated parts, each of which contributes to the stability and functioning of the whole. It emphasises the importance of social structures and institutions in maintaining social order and equilibrium. Key figures in the development of functionalism include Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, who both contributed significantly to the theory’s ideas about society as a system of interconnected parts.

Émile Durkheim and Functionalism

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) is one of the founding figures of functionalism and is best known for his studies on social cohesion, the division of labour, and the role of institutions in maintaining societal stability.

Key Concepts in Durkheim’s Functionalism

• Social Facts: Durkheim argued that social facts, such as laws, norms, and values, exist outside of the individual and shape behaviour. These social facts have a coercive influence on individuals, guiding their actions and maintaining order in society.
• Collective Conscience: This refers to the shared beliefs and values that bind a society together. Durkheim believed that the collective conscience was essential for social solidarity, as it enables individuals to understand their place within society and maintain social order.
• Social Solidarity: Durkheim distinguished between two types of social solidarity:
• Mechanical Solidarity: Found in traditional, small-scale societies, where social cohesion is based on shared experiences and similarities. People in these societies tend to have similar roles, beliefs, and values.
• Organic Solidarity: Found in modern, industrial societies, where social cohesion arises from the interdependence of individuals performing specialised roles. This type of solidarity relies on the division of labour, where people are linked through their different roles and the need for cooperation.
• Anomie: Durkheim identified the concept of anomie, which refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms. Anomie occurs during periods of rapid social change or when individuals experience a disconnection from societal norms, which can lead to social instability.
• Suicide Study: Durkheim’s study of suicide highlighted how social factors, rather than individual characteristics, could influence behaviour. He argued that suicide rates were influenced by the level of social integration (the degree to which individuals are connected to society) and social regulation (the extent to which societal norms control behaviour). High levels of integration or regulation could reduce the likelihood of suicide, while low levels of both could lead to higher rates.

Durkheim's View of Society as a System of Interconnected Parts:

Durkheim saw society as a system where each part plays a specific role in maintaining the whole. Just as the organs in the human body work together to keep the body functioning, the various institutions in society (such as education, family, and religion) work together to maintain social order and stability.

Talcott Parsons and the Development of Functionalism

Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) was an American sociologist who further developed functionalism by emphasising the role of social systems and the way different parts of society work together to maintain stability. His work extended Durkheim’s ideas and integrated them with a more abstract, theoretical framework.

Key Concepts in Parsons’ Functionalism

• The AGIL Schema: Parsons introduced the AGIL schema to explain the functions that all societies must fulfil to survive. The four basic functional needs of any social system are:
• Adaptation (A): The system must adapt to its environment and ensure the material needs of its members are met (e.g., economic systems).
• Goal Attainment (G): Society must establish goals and mobilise resources to achieve them (e.g., political systems that establish and enforce goals).
• Integration (I): Society must regulate the relationships between its different parts, ensuring they work together smoothly (e.g., legal systems).
• Latency (L): The system must maintain and transmit its cultural values and norms to ensure social stability over time (e.g., education and family systems).
• The Social System: Parsons viewed society as a social system made up of different institutions, each fulfilling one or more of the AGIL functions. These institutions work together to maintain equilibrium in society.
• Value Consensus: According to Parsons, for society to function smoothly, there must be a general agreement on shared values and norms. This value consensus binds individuals together and ensures social order.
• Equilibrium: A key idea in Parsons' theory is that society tends to move towards equilibrium, where all parts of the system function harmoniously. Change occurs gradually and in response to external factors, but it usually leads to a new equilibrium rather than chaos.
• Socialisation and the Role of Institutions: Parsons believed that socialisation, which occurs through institutions such as the family and education, is crucial for maintaining social order. Through socialisation, individuals learn the shared values and norms that enable society to function smoothly.

Parsons’ View of Society as a System of Interconnected Parts:

For Parsons, society is an interconnected system where each institution contributes to the overall stability of the system. Just as the human body relies on the proper functioning of different organs, society relies on the proper functioning of its institutions (such as family, economy, education, and religion) to maintain social order.

Key Features of Functionalism

• Society as a System: Functionalists view society as a system of interconnected parts, where each part plays a role in maintaining the stability and functioning of the whole. These parts include institutions like the family, education, the economy, and religion.
• Social Order and Stability: Functionalists emphasise that social order is essential for the smooth functioning of society. Institutions and social norms work together to create stability, reduce conflict, and ensure that individuals behave in ways that contribute to the wellbeing of society as a whole.
• Shared Values and Consensus: Functionalism stresses the importance of shared values and norms for societal cohesion. A value consensus ensures that individuals understand their roles and expectations in society, which helps maintain social order.
• Gradual Social Change: Functionalism tends to view social change as a gradual process that occurs when new needs or conditions arise in society. Change is seen as necessary to restore equilibrium and maintain social order.
• Positive View of Social Institutions: Functionalists generally take a positive view of social institutions, seeing them as necessary for the maintenance of order and stability. They believe that institutions like the family, education, and religion contribute positively to social cohesion.

Criticisms of Functionalism

While functionalism has been influential in sociology, it has also faced criticism:

• Overemphasis on Stability: Critics argue that functionalism focuses too much on stability and order and fails to account for conflict, power imbalances, and inequality in society. Marxists and feminists, for example, argue that functionalism overlooks the way society benefits certain groups at the expense of others.
• Deterministic: Functionalism has been criticised for being overly deterministic, as it suggests that individuals are shaped by societal structures and institutions with little regard for agency or individual choice.
• Ignores Social Change: Some argue that functionalism fails to adequately explain rapid social change, such as the upheaval caused by revolutions, social movements, or technological innovations.
• Idealistic View of Society: Functionalists are sometimes accused of presenting an idealised view of society, ignoring the real issues of inequality, exploitation, and social conflict.

Summary

Functionalism, as developed by Durkheim and Parsons, provides a framework for understanding how society functions as a system of interconnected parts. It emphasises social stability, shared values, and the role of institutions in maintaining order. While the theory has been highly influential, it has also faced criticism for its focus on stability and its neglect of social conflict and change. Despite these criticisms, functionalism remains a central theory in sociological thought, offering insights into the role of institutions and social cohesion.