Interactionism Theory

This section explores interactionism theory. Interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the daily interactions between individuals and the meanings they attach to these interactions. Unlike structuralist theories like Functionalism and Marxism, which focus on large-scale social structures, Interactionism is more concerned with how individuals create and interpret the social world through their interactions. Key theories within this perspective include Labelling Theory and Symbolic Interactionism, with influential figures such as Erving Goffman and Howard Becker making significant contributions to our understanding of social behaviour and identity.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic Interactionism is a framework within sociology that examines how individuals act based on the meanings they derive from their social interactions. The theory is rooted in the idea that symbols (such as language, gestures, and objects) form the basis of communication and social life. People interpret and respond to symbols in ways that shape their actions and interactions.

Key Principles of Symbolic Interactionism:

• The Self and the Social World: Symbolic interactionists argue that the self is formed through social interactions. George Herbert Mead (one of the key figures in the development of symbolic interactionism) argued that individuals come to understand themselves through the roles they play in society and the reactions of others. This process is known as the looking-glass self, which suggests that we develop our self-concept based on how others perceive us.
• The Role of Language and Symbols: Language is central to symbolic interactionism, as it allows individuals to convey and interpret meanings. Through language, people create and negotiate social reality, develop identities, and communicate their thoughts and feelings.
• Social Interaction as the Basis of Society: Symbolic interactionists believe that society is constructed through the everyday actions and interactions of individuals. There is no overarching structure or set of rules that dictates behaviour; instead, norms and values are continually negotiated and reaffirmed through interaction.
• Meaning and Interpretation: For symbolic interactionists, people act based on the meanings that things (objects, behaviours, etc.) have for them. These meanings are not inherent; they are socially constructed. As people interact, they continuously reinterpret and redefine the meanings of things based on their experiences.

Key Figure: George Herbert Mead

Mead's work focused on the development of the self and the process of socialisation. According to Mead, individuals acquire a sense of self through social interaction, particularly through the generalised other—the attitudes, expectations, and behaviours of society as a whole.

Labelling Theory

Labelling Theory is a significant theory within Interactionism that examines how individuals or groups come to be labelled as deviant, criminal, or socially acceptable. This theory suggests that deviance is not inherent in an act but is instead the result of societal reaction and labelling. Once an individual is labelled as deviant, it can influence their self-identity and how others perceive them, potentially leading to further deviant behaviour.

Key Principles of Labelling Theory:

• Deviance as Socially Constructed: Labelling theorists argue that deviance is not a quality inherent in an act, but is defined by societal reaction. A behaviour or characteristic is only seen as deviant because society labels it as such. What is considered deviant can vary across different cultures, societies, and historical periods.
• Primary and Secondary Deviance: Edwin Lemert, a key figure in labelling theory, distinguished between two types of deviance:
• Primary deviance: The initial act of deviance, which may not have a significant impact on an individual’s identity.
• Secondary deviance: Occurs when an individual internalises the deviant label and begins to act in ways that are consistent with the label. This can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the individual is further marginalised or excluded, reinforcing their deviant behaviour.
• The Role of Power in Labelling: Labelling theory emphasises that those in positions of power (such as the police, media, or political leaders) have the ability to define what is considered deviant. This can lead to the marginalisation of certain groups or behaviours, particularly those that challenge the status quo. Howard Becker, a key figure in labelling theory, argued that deviance is a result of the labels imposed by powerful groups, rather than any inherent quality of the behaviour itself.
• The Impact of Labelling: Once an individual is labelled as deviant, this label can become a central part of their identity. This can lead to further social exclusion, discrimination, or stigmatisation. The label can also create a master status, where the deviant label overshadows other aspects of the individual’s identity.

Key Figure: Howard Becker

Becker’s work on labelling theory emphasised the idea that "deviant" behaviour is not inherent in the act itself, but is the result of social processes and the application of labels. In his influential work Outsiders (1963), Becker argued that deviance is created by the reactions of others and that the labelled individual may begin to conform to the expectations associated with the deviant label.

Erving Goffman and the Presentation of Self

Erving Goffman was a Canadian sociologist who made significant contributions to symbolic interactionism, particularly with his concept of the presentation of self in everyday life. Goffman examined how people manage their identities and the impressions they make on others during social interactions.

Key Ideas in Goffman’s Work:

• Dramaturgical Approach: In his work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), Goffman introduced the concept of the dramaturgical model. He compared social interaction to a theatrical performance, where individuals play roles, manage impressions, and act in ways that align with societal expectations. Just as actors perform on a stage, individuals perform in everyday life, adapting their behaviour to fit different situations and social contexts.
• Front Stage and Back Stage: Goffman distinguished between the front stage, where individuals perform and manage the impression they give to others (e.g., in public or formal settings), and the back stage, where individuals can relax and be themselves (e.g., in private or informal settings). The front stage is where individuals engage in self-presentation, while the back stage is where they prepare for their performances.
• Impression Management: Goffman argued that individuals engage in impression management—the process of controlling how they are perceived by others. This involves using certain tactics (such as clothing, body language, and speech) to project a desired image, which can vary depending on the audience and social context.
• Stigma and Social Identity: In his later work, such as Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963), Goffman explored the concept of stigma, where individuals with certain characteristics (such as a physical disability or criminal record) are devalued or treated as socially inferior. Goffman examined how people with stigmatised identities manage their interactions with others and attempt to maintain a positive sense of self.

Key Contributions of Interactionism

• Focus on Micro-Level Interactions: Interactionism shifts the focus from large social structures to small-scale, everyday interactions. It is concerned with how individuals actively create, maintain, and transform social reality through their interactions.
• Social Construction of Reality: Interactionism emphasises that the meanings and labels we attach to people, actions, and objects are socially constructed. This view challenges the idea that social reality is objective or fixed, and instead highlights the fluid and dynamic nature of social life.
• Understanding Deviance: Labelling theory provides an important perspective on deviance, showing how societal reactions and labels can influence the behaviour of individuals. It highlights the role of power in defining who is labelled as deviant and the social consequences of such labels.
• Agency and Identity: Interactionism underscores the importance of individual agency in the creation of identity. It stresses that people are not simply passive recipients of social roles and labels; instead, they actively negotiate and interpret the meanings of their interactions.

Summary

Interactionism offers a unique approach to understanding social life, focusing on the micro-level interactions between individuals and the meanings they attach to these interactions. Through symbolic interactionism and labelling theory, figures like Erving Goffman and Howard Becker have contributed to our understanding of how identities are formed, how deviance is defined, and how social realities are constructed. These theories provide valuable insights into the complexities of human behaviour, identity, and social interaction.