Stratification and Differentiation

This section explores the topic of stratification and differentiation in relation to A-Level Sociology. The page explains: Stratification and Differentiation by Social Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and Age, Dimensions of Inequality: Class, Status, and Power, Problems of Defining and Measuring Social Class, Changes in Structures of Inequality and Nature, Extent, and Significance of Social Mobility.

Stratification and Differentiation by Social Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and Age

Stratification: Refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society based on various forms of social inequality. Stratification can be based on social class, gender, ethnicity, age, and other factors, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities.

Social Class: Class is a major basis for social stratification in most societies. It is often determined by one's economic position, occupation, income, and wealth.

Karl Marx focused on the division between the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (workers). He argued that class conflict arises from this division.

Max Weber expanded this to include status (social prestige) and party (political power), arguing that class is only one dimension of inequality.

Gender: Stratification by gender leads to the differential treatment of men and women in society, with patriarchal structures often benefiting men.

Feminist Theory highlights how women face systemic disadvantages in areas like pay, political power, and representation. Liberal feminists advocate for equality through reforms, while radical feminists focus on the structural nature of patriarchy.

Ethnicity: Ethnic minorities can experience stratification due to racism, cultural prejudice, and systemic discrimination. This can affect access to jobs, education, housing, and other resources.

Racial inequality is often reinforced by institutional racism, which refers to discriminatory practices embedded in societal institutions.

Age: Age-based stratification occurs due to ageism, where individuals are treated differently based on their age.

Older adults might face marginalisation in the workplace or healthcare, while younger people may struggle with underemployment or being stereotyped as inexperienced.

Dimensions of Inequality: Class, Status, and Power

Class: Refers to one's economic position, often based on wealth, income, and occupation. Those in higher social classes have greater access to resources and opportunities, while lower classes face more challenges.

Status: Weberian sociologists emphasise status as a source of inequality, distinct from economic class. Status refers to one's social prestige or honour, which may come from lifestyle, education, or family background.

Power: Power refers to the ability to influence or control the behaviour of others. Power is often unequally distributed across class, gender, ethnicity, and other social divisions. C. Wright Mills' concept of the power elite describes a small group of wealthy, powerful individuals who dominate political and economic institutions. In the UK many of these individual attended a small elite group of schools and Universities.

Differences in Life-Chances by Social Class, Gender, Ethnicity, Age, and Disability

Life-chances: Opportunities and advantages individuals have for achieving economic prosperity, education, and good health.

Social Class: Higher classes tend to have better access to quality education, healthcare, and higher-paying jobs, which increases their life-chances.

Gender: Women, particularly in lower-income groups, often have fewer life-chances due to the gender pay gap, lower employment rates, and domestic responsibilities.

Ethnicity: Ethnic minorities, especially in Western societies, often experience lower life-chances due to systemic racism, barriers in education, and discrimination in employment.

Age: Older individuals may face limited employment opportunities and age discrimination, while younger people may experience challenges in the job market and housing.

Disability: Disabled individuals frequently face barriers in access to education, employment, and healthcare, often leading to reduced life-chances compared to able-bodied people.

Problems of Defining and Measuring Social Class

Defining Social Class: There is on-going debate about how to best define social class. Traditional definitions focus on occupation, but there is growing recognition that class also includes lifestyle, status, and cultural capital.

Marxist Approach: Defines class in relation to ownership of the means of production (bourgeoisie vs proletariat).

Weberian Approach: Includes class, status, and power as overlapping dimensions of inequality.

Measuring Social Class: Class is often measured by occupation, which may not fully capture the complexity of class identity. The Registrar General’s Classification and the more recent NS-SEC (National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification) are examples of systems used to categorise people based on their occupation, but these classifications can be criticised for being too simplistic or outdated.

Occupation, Gender, and Social Class:

Occupation is often seen as a proxy for class, but it fails to account for the complexities of gendered work. Women are often concentrated in lower-paid, lower-status jobs, which impacts their social class.

Horizontal segregation (women in different types of jobs than men) and vertical segregation (women concentrated in lower levels of the same job) also complicate class measurement.

Changes in Structures of Inequality

Globalisation: Refers to the increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and societies. Globalisation has led to shifts in inequality:

Positive Effects: Some countries and individuals have benefited from globalisation through increased trade, technology, and communication, leading to higher standards of living in some developing countries.

Negative Effects: Globalisation has also widened the gap between rich and poor, with wealth concentrated in the hands of a global elite. Jobs in developed countries may be outsourced, and workers in developing nations often face exploitation.

Transnational Capitalist Class (TCC): Sociologists such as Leslie Sklair argue that globalisation has led to the rise of a Transnational Capitalist Class, which consists of corporate executives, global political elites, and media professionals who control global production and communication. This group transcends national boundaries and holds immense economic and political power, deepening global inequalities.

Implications of These Changes:

Increased Inequality: Globalisation and the TCC have contributed to widening economic disparities both within and between countries.

Shifts in Class Structure: The traditional working class in industrialised nations has shrunk as economies become more service-oriented, while new forms of employment, such as precarious or gig work, have emerged.

Nature, Extent, and Significance of Social Mobility

Social Mobility: Refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move between different social classes. Upward mobility occurs when individuals improve their social standing, while downward mobility happens when their social position worsens.

Types of Social Mobility:

Intra-generational Mobility: Movement within a person's own lifetime, such as moving from a low-paying job to a higher-paying profession.

Intergenerational Mobility: Movement between generations, such as a child achieving a higher social status than their parents.

Factors Influencing Social Mobility:

Education: Access to quality education is one of the most significant factors that facilitate upward social mobility.

Family Background: Individuals from wealthier, higher-status families tend to have more opportunities for upward mobility.

Gender and Ethnicity: Women and ethnic minorities often face barriers to upward mobility due to discrimination and unequal access to resources.

Economic Structure: Social mobility is also influenced by changes in the economy, such as the decline of manufacturing jobs or the rise of the service sector.

Extent of Social Mobility: Research suggests that social mobility in the UK is relatively limited. Children from higher social classes are more likely to retain their parents’ social position, while those from lower classes often face difficulties in climbing the social ladder.

Goldthorpe’s Study: Sociologist John Goldthorpe found that while there has been some upward social mobility, it is often due to structural changes (e.g., the decline of manual labour) rather than individual merit.

Significance of Social Mobility: High levels of social mobility are often seen as a sign of a meritocratic society, where individuals can succeed based on their abilities. However, the limited extent of social mobility suggests that factors like class, gender, and ethnicity still significantly shape life-chances and the ability to achieve upward mobility.

Stratification and differentiation remain central to understanding social inequalities in contemporary societies. While globalisation has altered the landscape of inequality, with the rise of the Transnational Capitalist Class and changes in the occupational structure, the persistence of class, gender, ethnicity, and age-based inequalities continues to impact life-chances. Social mobility remains a key issue in assessing the fairness of societal structures, and despite some opportunities for movement, the barriers to achieving equality remain significant.