Work, Poverty and Welfare

This section explains the topic of Work, Poverty, and Welfare, within A-Level Sociology. These notes explore: The Nature, Existence, and Persistence of Poverty in Contemporary Society, The Distribution of Poverty, Wealth, and Income between Different Social Groups, The Responses and Solutions to Poverty by the State and Private, Voluntary, and Informal Welfare Providers, Organisation and Control of the Labour Process, The Significance of Work and Worklessness for People's Lives and Life Chances and The Effects of Globalisation on Work.

The Nature, Existence, and Persistence of Poverty in Contemporary Society

Poverty is a social issue that involves the lack of access to necessary resources to maintain a standard of living. Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty and relative poverty:

Absolute Poverty: This refers to a situation where individuals lack the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clean water. In developed countries like the UK, absolute poverty is less common but can still be found in cases of extreme deprivation.

Relative Poverty: This is more relevant to contemporary UK society. It refers to individuals whose income is significantly below the average for their society, leading to social exclusion. Peter Townsend developed the concept of relative poverty, arguing that it’s not just about survival but about the ability to participate fully in society.

Poverty persists due to several factors:

Structural Factors: Marxists argue that poverty is a product of the capitalist system, where wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few. The reserve army of labour concept (Marx) suggests that the unemployed or low-paid workers are necessary to keep wages down and maximise profits.

Cultural Explanations: The culture of poverty theory (Lewis) suggests that poverty is passed down through generations via norms, values, and behaviours that keep people in poverty, such as fatalism or reliance on welfare. However, this theory has been criticised for blaming the poor for their situation.

Cycle of Poverty: This refers to the idea that poverty is self-perpetuating. Poor housing, poor health, and poor education reinforce each other, making it difficult for individuals to escape poverty.

Welfare Dependency: The New Right argues that over-reliance on welfare benefits creates a dependency culture where individuals have little incentive to work, which keeps them in poverty. Critics argue this view overlooks the structural causes of poverty, such as low wages and lack of job opportunities.

The Distribution of Poverty, Wealth, and Income between Different Social Groups

Poverty, wealth, and income are distributed unequally across different social groups in contemporary society.

Social Class: There is a strong link between social class and poverty. Working-class individuals are more likely to experience poverty due to low-paying jobs, insecure employment, and limited access to resources such as education and healthcare. Middle-class and upper-class individuals generally have more wealth and better-paid, more secure jobs.

Gender: Women are more likely to live in poverty than men due to factors like the gender pay gap, greater responsibility for unpaid domestic work, and higher likelihood of part-time work. Feminists argue that women’s economic disadvantage is rooted in patriarchal structures. Lone-parent families, the majority of which are headed by women, are particularly vulnerable to poverty.

Ethnicity: Ethnic minorities in the UK are more likely to experience poverty. This is due to a combination of factors, including, employment discrimination, lower wages, and poorer educational opportunities. For example, Black and Pakistani communities have higher rates of unemployment and are more likely to live in deprived areas.

Age: Both the young and the elderly are more vulnerable to poverty. Child poverty is a significant issue in the UK, affecting life chances, while many elderly people live in poverty due to inadequate pensions and rising costs of living.

Region: There is a clear North-South divide in the UK, with northern regions, particularly post-industrial areas, experiencing higher levels of poverty compared to the more affluent South. Rural areas can also experience higher rates of poverty due to isolation and lack of services.

Responses and Solutions to Poverty by the State and Private, Voluntary, and Informal Welfare Providers

Responses to poverty come from various sources, including the state, private organisations, voluntary groups, and informal support networks.

State Welfare: The welfare state in the UK provides benefits and services aimed at reducing poverty. This includes Universal Credit, child benefit, housing benefit, and the NHS. The state also offers educational opportunities and job-seeking support to help people move out of poverty. Sociologists debate the effectiveness of state intervention. While social democrats argue that welfare provisions are essential for reducing inequality, New Right thinkers argue that excessive welfare can create a dependency culture.

Private Sector: In recent years, there has been an increase in privatisation of welfare services, such as healthcare and education, leading to debates about efficiency and equality. Critics argue that privatisation can deepen inequality, as access to high-quality services often depends on the ability to pay. However healthcare and primary and secondary education, remain free at the point of use in the UK.

Voluntary Sector: Charities and non-profit organisations play a key role in addressing poverty by providing support services, food banks, and advice centres. For example, organisations like The Trussell Trust run food banks, while Shelter provides assistance to people facing homelessness.

Informal Welfare: Informal welfare includes support provided by family members, friends, or local communities. This is particularly important in the context of elderly care or childcare, where the state provision may be inadequate. However, relying on informal networks can place pressure on those providing the care, often women.

Organisation and Control of the Labour Process

The way work is organised and controlled has changed over time, particularly with advances in technology and changes in the division of labour.

Division of Labour: Durkheim argued that the division of labour increases productivity and social solidarity by making individuals more dependent on one another. However, Marxists argue that the division of labour, particularly under capitalism, alienates workers, as they are reduced to performing repetitive tasks with little control over the final product.

Taylorism and Fordism: Taylorism (scientific management) aimed to increase efficiency by breaking tasks into small, standardised processes. Fordism built on this with mass production techniques, such as assembly lines. These methods increased productivity but led to deskilling of workers, making their roles monotonous and reducing their bargaining power.

Post-Fordism: In contrast to Fordism, post-Fordism involves more flexible work practices, often requiring a more highly skilled workforce. This shift is linked to the rise of the service economy and globalisation, where companies outsource production and adapt quickly to market demands. However, this flexibility can lead to job insecurity and precarious work (e.g., zero-hour contracts).

The Role of Technology: Technology has transformed the workplace, automating many tasks and creating new industries. Braverman argues that technology often leads to the deskilling of workers, as machines take over complex tasks. However, others, such as postmodernists, argue that technology can empower workers by giving them access to new skills and opportunities.

The Significance of Work and Worklessness for People's Lives and Life Chances

Work plays a crucial role in shaping individuals' lives, identities, and opportunities, while worklessness (unemployment) can have negative consequences.

Work and Identity: Work is central to many people's identity and social status. It provides a sense of purpose, structure, and belonging. Functionalists, like Parsons, argue that work is an essential part of social integration and stability. However, Marxists view work under capitalism as exploitative, where workers are alienated from their labour and the products they create.

Worklessness: Unemployment can have severe effects on individuals' life chances. It can lead to social exclusion, poor mental and physical health, and a loss of identity. Long-term unemployment can make it harder for individuals to re-enter the workforce due to skills erosion. Murray (New Right) argued that worklessness contributes to an "underclass" culture characterised by welfare dependency, while others, such as Marxists, see unemployment as a necessary feature of capitalism to keep wages low and workers compliant.

Life Chances: A person’s occupation and employment status are significant predictors of their life chances. Weber highlighted the importance of class, status, and party in determining individuals' opportunities in life, with those in higher-status occupations having better access to resources, education, and social networks.

The Effects of Globalisation on Work

Globalisation has profoundly impacted work in contemporary society:

Outsourcing and Deindustrialisation: Globalisation has led to the decline of manufacturing in many Western countries, as companies outsource production to countries where labour is cheaper. This has led to deindustrialisation in places like the North of England, causing job losses and economic decline in former industrial heartlands.

Increased Job Insecurity: The global economy has created a more flexible labour market, but this often leads to precarious forms of employment. Gig economy jobs, where individuals work on short-term contracts or freelance work, are becoming more common. While these jobs offer flexibility, they often lack security, benefits, and protections.

Polarisation of Jobs: Globalisation has contributed to the polarisation of the labour market, with high-skilled, high-paying jobs (often in technology or finance) growing, while low-skilled jobs become more precarious. Middle-income jobs, particularly in manufacturing, have been eroded.

Cultural Changes: Globalisation has also brought cultural changes to the workplace, with more diverse workforces and the spread of multinational corporations. However, critics argue that globalisation often leads to the McDonaldization of work (Ritzer), where jobs become standardised, controlled, and dehumanised.

Summary

Poverty persists due to structural inequalities, cultural factors, and the cycle of poverty, with different social groups experiencing poverty differently.

Responses to poverty come from the state, private, voluntary, and informal sectors, but inequalities in welfare provision remain.

The organisation of work has changed, with technology and globalisation playing key roles in shaping the modern labour process.

Work is central to individuals’ identities and life chances, while unemployment can lead to social exclusion.

Globalisation has had mixed effects on work, creating opportunities for some but insecurity and inequality for others.