Reactions to Soviet Expansion

This section explains the reactions to Soviet expansion after World War Two from the Allies. The spread of communism across Eastern Europe after World War II became a major concern for the Western Allies. The war had been fought under the banner of freedom, but it now appeared that the hard-won liberation from Nazi tyranny was being replaced by authoritarian communist regimes, many of them imposed by the Soviet Union. This shift marked the beginning of the Cold War, as tensions between the capitalist West and the communist East escalated.

An Exchange of Telegrams

The Long Telegram (1946)

In 1946, George Kennan, a US diplomat in Moscow, was tasked with providing an analysis of Soviet intentions and activities. His response, known as the Long Telegram, was a detailed 8,000-word document that laid the foundation for US policy towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Kennan argued that the USSR was a heavily armed and insecure power that feared external threats. This fear, combined with a determination to spread communism, made peaceful coexistence between the USSR and the USA unlikely. However, Kennan also suggested that communism could be "contained" because the US was stronger than the Soviet Union.

The Long Telegram had significant implications. It presented the Soviet Union as a hostile force determined to spread its ideology, but it also proposed a policy of containment rather than confrontation. This idea of limiting the spread of communism became the cornerstone of American foreign policy throughout the Cold War.

The Novikov Telegram (1946)

In response, the Soviet Union issued the Novikov Telegram. Written by Soviet ambassador to the United States, Nikolai Novikov, this telegram warned that the US had emerged from World War II economically strong and was now pursuing a policy of global dominance. The US's actions, Novikov argued, were forcing the USSR to secure its own buffer zone in Eastern Europe. The tension between the two superpowers was becoming evident as both sides laid the blame on each other for the rising hostilities.

These two telegrams set the tone for the Cold War, with the USA adopting a policy of containment, while the USSR sought to protect and expand its influence in Eastern Europe.

The Iron Curtain Speech (1946)

One of the most significant public reactions to Soviet expansion came from Winston Churchill, who delivered his famous "Iron Curtain" speech on 5 March 1946. Churchill, who was no longer the Prime Minister of the UK but remained a prominent figure, condemned the Soviet Union's actions in Eastern Europe. He described the division of Europe, saying, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent." Churchill’s speech reflected the growing divide between the communist East, under Soviet influence, and the democratic West, signalling the beginning of the Cold War.

Churchill's words were aimed at raising awareness of the Soviet threat and urging the Western Allies to stand firm against Soviet expansion. The term "Iron Curtain" became a powerful symbol of the ideological and political division between Eastern and Western Europe.

The Truman Doctrine (1947)

In response to growing communist influence in Europe, particularly in Greece and Turkey, US President Harry S. Truman articulated a new policy in March 1947. The Greek Civil War (1946-1949) had pitted the Greek government, supported by Britain, against communist insurgents. However, by 1947, Britain was no longer able to provide financial aid to the Greek government due to economic strain. Truman, a strong anti-communist, saw this as a potential tipping point that could lead to Soviet influence spreading further into Europe.

In a speech to Congress, Truman declared that it must be the policy of the United States to support countries resisting communist takeover. He argued that “It must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” This speech laid the foundation for what became known as the Truman Doctrine, which marked the beginning of active US involvement in countering the spread of communism around the world. Truman’s commitment to aid countries resisting communism was seen as a direct response to the growing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and beyond.

The Marshall Plan (1947)

At the same time, the US sought to address the economic instability in Europe, which was seen as a factor contributing to the rise of communist parties. In many Western European countries, such as France and Italy, the economic hardship following the war had led to significant support for communist groups. To prevent the spread of communism, US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a massive aid programme to help rebuild the economies of Europe. This became known as the Marshall Plan, which promised over $12 billion in aid to European nations, with the aim of stabilising their economies and making them less susceptible to communist influence.

Marshall Aid was offered to all European countries, including those under Soviet control, but Stalin refused to allow Eastern Bloc countries to accept it. The Marshall Plan thus became a powerful tool for economic reconstruction in Western Europe, further deepening the divide between East and West. It also served as a form of soft power, convincing countries that aligning with the US and adopting capitalist principles would lead to prosperity and stability.

The Soviet Response

The Soviet Union vehemently opposed the Marshall Plan and took steps to counter it. Moscow denounced the aid as "dollar imperialism," accusing the US of using its financial assistance to exert political control over European countries. In response, Stalin set up Cominform (the Communist Information Bureau) in 1947, an organisation aimed at tightening Soviet control over the communist parties of Eastern Europe. Cominform sought to coordinate the activities of communist governments and promote Soviet-style economic policies across the region.

In 1949, the USSR also established Comecon (the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) to provide its own financial assistance to Eastern European countries. Comecon was designed to counter the economic influence of the Marshall Plan by fostering economic ties between communist states and creating a network of trade and industrial cooperation under Soviet leadership.

Rollback vs Containment

The debate over how to respond to Soviet expansion also involved the US government’s approach to dealing with communism. While the policy of containment sought to prevent the spread of communism, some political groups argued for a more aggressive stance, known as rollback. Rollback would have involved actively seeking to overthrow communist regimes, potentially through military intervention. However, US policymakers rejected this approach, as it was deemed too risky and confrontational. Containment, as proposed by Kennan in his Long Telegram, became the dominant strategy for the US and shaped its foreign policy throughout the Cold War.

Revision Tip: The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

When President Truman described the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan as "two halves of the same walnut," he was emphasising how these two policies worked together to stop the spread of communism. The Truman Doctrine focused on military and economic support for countries resisting communist pressures, while the Marshall Plan aimed to address the economic vulnerabilities that made countries susceptible to communist influence. Together, they formed a comprehensive strategy of containment.

Conclusion

The Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe and the Western response to it marked the beginning of the Cold War. The division of Europe into two spheres of influence: communist East and capitalist West, was made clear through events such as the Iron Curtain speech, the Truman Doctrine, and the Marshall Plan. The US committed itself to preventing the spread of communism through economic aid and military support, while the USSR sought to expand its own influence through political control and economic alliances in Eastern Europe. These developments set the stage for the ideological, political, and military conflict that defined the Cold War for decades.