The U2 Crisis

This section explains the U2 Spy Plane crisis in1960. By the late 1950s, relations between the two superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—were relatively stable compared to earlier years in the Cold War. The respective leaders, President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Premier Nikita Khrushchev, had pursued a cautious policy of peaceful co-existence, recognising that the costs of direct conflict would be catastrophic. However, their nations remained ideologically opposed, and both leaders were under domestic pressure to appear strong in the face of the Cold War rivalry.

Background

The Arms Race and Sputnik:

• In 1957, the USSR shocked the world by launching Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. This achievement made the United States fearful that the Soviet Union was gaining an advantage in technology and military power.
• American military leaders exaggerated claims of a “missile gap”, arguing that the Soviets had developed more advanced nuclear weapons than the USA.
• This created pressure on Eisenhower to increase military spending and strengthen America’s nuclear arsenal.

Espionage and Reconnaissance Missions:

• To address the claims of a missile gap, Eisenhower approved secret U2 spy plane missions to gather intelligence over Soviet territory. These high-altitude planes were equipped with advanced cameras capable of capturing detailed images of Soviet military installations.
• Eisenhower believed that the U2 missions would prove that the USSR was not ahead in missile development, easing tensions and justifying reduced military expenditure.

Summit Diplomacy:

• After a successful meeting between Khrushchev and Eisenhower in 1959 at Camp David in the USA, hopes were high for further progress at the upcoming Paris Summit in May 1960.
• Key issues on the agenda included:
  • Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: To limit the environmental damage caused by nuclear weapons testing.
  • Berlin: To address the mass exodus of East Germans escaping through West Berlin.
  • Cuba: To discuss the implications of the recent Cuban Revolution, which had established a communist government under Fidel Castro on America’s doorstep.

The U2 Incident

On 1 May 1960, just thirteen days before the Paris Summit, the USSR shot down an American U2 spy plane over Soviet territory. The plane’s pilot, Francis Gary Powers, survived the crash and was captured.

Initial US Denial:

• The United States initially claimed that the plane was a weather reconnaissance aircraft that had veered off course.
• However, the Soviet Union presented evidence that contradicted this claim: the plane's wreckage and aerial photographs recovered from the aircraft proved it was a spy mission.

Khrushchev’s Reaction:

• Khrushchev publicly revealed the truth about the U2 mission, embarrassing the United States on the international stage.
• At the Paris Summit, Khrushchev demanded an official apology from Eisenhower and assurances that no further espionage would occur.

Eisenhower’s Refusal:

• Eisenhower admitted to authorising the U2 flights but refused to apologise, citing the necessity of intelligence-gathering in the context of the Cold War.
• In response, Khrushchev walked out of the summit, bringing the talks to an abrupt end.

Consequences of the U2 Crisis

The U2 incident had significant repercussions for both superpower relations and Cold War dynamics.

Breakdown of the Paris Summit:

• The summit ended in failure, with no agreements on:
  • A nuclear test ban treaty, leaving both sides free to continue testing weapons.
  • The Berlin crisis, which remained unresolved and would lead to further tensions, including the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
  • Cuba, where tensions over its communist government would later culminate in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.

Damage to US Credibility:

• The U2 incident severely damaged America’s international reputation.
• The United States was caught in a lie, having initially claimed the U2 was a weather plane, and was exposed as engaging in espionage.
• This eroded America’s claim to the moral high ground in the Cold War, allowing the USSR to accuse the US of hypocrisy.

Worsening of Superpower Relations:

• The incident marked a turning point in US-Soviet relations, which deteriorated significantly after the summit’s collapse.
• Khrushchev became increasingly distrustful of the United States, and hopes for a thaw in Cold War tensions were dashed.
• The failure of the summit set the stage for heightened tensions in the early 1960s, including the Berlin Wall crisis and the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Francis Gary Powers:

• Powers was held in the Soviet Union, where he was put on trial for espionage. He was eventually released in 1962 in a prisoner exchange for a captured Soviet spy, Rudolf Abel.
• The incident made Powers a controversial figure in the US, where some criticised him for not using the plane’s self-destruct mechanisms or suicide pill to prevent capture.

Legacy of the U2 Crisis

• The U2 crisis exposed the fragility of diplomatic progress during the Cold War, showing how a single event could derail months of careful negotiations.
• It highlighted the dangers of espionage and how technological advancements in surveillance became a critical part of Cold War competition.
• The incident also underlined the mutual distrust between the superpowers, ensuring that the Cold War would continue for decades.