The Cuban Missile Crisis

This section explains the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 was arguably the most perilous moment of the Cold War, bringing the world to the verge of nuclear war. For 13 intense days, the United States and the Soviet Union stood on the precipice of a catastrophic conflict that could have led to global devastation. The crisis stemmed from the discovery of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles off the coast of Florida, a situation that threatened American national security and escalated tensions between the two superpowers.

Background to the Crisis

Before the revolution in 1959, Cuba was a close ally of the United States under the dictatorial regime of General Batista. The US had extensive investments in Cuba, particularly in its sugar and tobacco industries, and the country was a major market for American goods. However, when Fidel Castro overthrew Batista and came to power, the dynamics shifted dramatically. Castro initially sought support from the US, but President Dwight D. Eisenhower refused to recognise his new government.

Soon after, Castro turned to the Soviet Union for support. Though he had not been a communist initially, the lack of US support pushed him into the arms of Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader. In 1960, Castro began nationalising American-owned businesses in Cuba without compensation, further straining relations with the United States. This move, coupled with the rise of communism just 90 miles from US soil, alarmed the US, which now faced a communist regime in its "backyard."

The US Response to Castro’s Revolution

The United States quickly imposed a trade embargo on Cuba, cutting off trade and depriving the Cuban economy of the American market for its sugar and tobacco. This backfired, however, as Cuba turned to the Soviet Union, which provided Cuba with oil and military aid. The Cuban government also became a strategic ally of the USSR, which wanted to expand its influence in the Western Hemisphere.

In April 1961, newly-elected President John F. Kennedy approved a CIA-backed plan to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro in what became known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion. The plan called for 1,400 Cuban exiles to land on the southern coast of Cuba and spark an anti-communist uprising. However, just before the invasion, Kennedy cancelled US Air Force support, and the operation failed spectacularly. The Cuban forces quickly defeated the invaders, with nearly all of them either killed or captured. The failed invasion embarrassed Kennedy and made him appear both weak and aggressive, which would influence his response to future crises.

Discovery of the Soviet Missiles in Cuba

On 14 October 1962, a US U-2 spy plane took high-altitude photographs that revealed the construction of Soviet missile launch sites in Cuba. These missiles were capable of reaching major American cities, including Washington, DC, and New York, in a matter of minutes. The United States now faced the terrifying prospect of nuclear missiles being stationed in Cuba, just 90 miles from its shores.

In addition to the missiles, US reconnaissance flights spotted 20 Soviet ships heading toward Cuba, potentially carrying even more nuclear missiles. This discovery presented an immediate and direct threat to US national security, and the situation was made even more urgent by the fact that some of the missiles could be operational within just a few days.

Why Did the USSR Want Missiles in Cuba?

There were several reasons why the Soviet Union sought to place nuclear missiles in Cuba:

• To Close the "Missile Gap": The Soviet Union was concerned about the US's nuclear superiority, particularly its missile bases in Turkey, which were within striking distance of Soviet territory. Placing missiles in Cuba would serve as a way to balance the scales.
• Khrushchev’s Domestic Political Strategy: Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev wanted to strengthen his position at home by appearing tough on the US. The installation of missiles in Cuba would showcase Soviet power and deter American aggression.
• To Protect Cuba: Khrushchev was also motivated by a desire to protect the fledgling communist regime in Cuba. After the US-backed Bay of Pigs invasion, the Soviet Union sought to ensure that Castro's government would not face further military threats from the United States.

Response to the Crisis

In the face of this grave threat, President Kennedy convened a group of advisors known as the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EX-Comm) to discuss the best course of action. The options available to Kennedy were varied and carried different risks:

• Ignore the missiles: Some considered that the missiles were no immediate threat and could be left unchallenged.
• Involve the United Nations: Some advisors suggested that the US bring the issue to the UN to seek a diplomatic resolution.
• Blockade Cuba: A naval blockade to prevent further Soviet shipments of weapons to Cuba.
• Military action: A full-scale invasion of Cuba or air strikes on the missile sites.

Kennedy ultimately rejected immediate military action, as it risked provoking a full-scale nuclear conflict. He also dismissed the idea of involving the UN, fearing it would send the wrong message about American resolve. Instead, Kennedy chose a middle ground, opting for a naval blockade, which he termed a "quarantine," to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba.

The Naval Blockade

On 22 October 1962, Kennedy addressed the nation, announcing that the US would impose a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from delivering more nuclear missiles. He also made it clear that any missile launch from Cuba would be regarded as an attack by the Soviet Union and would lead to full retaliation. This strong response aimed to buy time for diplomatic negotiations while avoiding immediate military escalation.

Timeline of the Crisis

• 22 October: Kennedy announces the naval blockade of Cuba.
• 23 October: Khrushchev sends a letter saying Soviet ships will not stop at the blockade.
• 24 October: Soviet ships turn back, avoiding direct confrontation with the US Navy.
• 25 October: US spy planes report increased activity at the missile sites in Cuba.
• 26 October: Khrushchev offers to remove the missiles in exchange for the US lifting the blockade and promising not to invade Cuba.
• 27 October: A second letter from Khrushchev demands the removal of US missiles in Turkey in exchange for the Cuban missiles being removed. Kennedy decides to respond only to the first letter while privately considering the removal of missiles in Turkey.
• 28 October: Khrushchev publicly announces on Soviet radio that he agrees to remove the missiles from Cuba, averting war.

Consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis had significant and lasting consequences:

• A Victory for Both Sides: Both the Soviet Union and the United States claimed partial victories. Khrushchev saved Castro's communist regime in Cuba and secured a deal for the removal of US missiles from Turkey. Kennedy stood firm against Soviet aggression and prevented nuclear missiles from being stationed in Cuba.
• The "Hotline": In the aftermath of the crisis, both superpowers recognised the need for direct communication to avoid future misunderstandings. A hotline was established between the White House and the Kremlin to allow immediate contact in times of crisis.
• Nuclear Arms Control: The crisis demonstrated the dangers of nuclear confrontation, leading to the signing of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater, and in space. It also laid the groundwork for future arms control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which aimed to curb the nuclear arms race.

In the long term, the Cuban Missile Crisis served as a wake-up call for both the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to a new era of diplomacy and a cautious approach to Cold War conflicts.