The Growth of Democracy in Germany, 1890–1929

This section explores the growth of German Democracy between 1890 and 1929.

Germany Before the First World War: The Rule of Kaiser Wilhelm II

Before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Germany was a constitutional monarchy. This meant that it had a Kaiser (Emperor), Wilhelm II, who ruled the country, alongside a parliament (the Reichstag), which was elected by adult males. However, despite having a parliamentary system, Germany was not a full democracy, as the Kaiser had significant control over the government and military.

Two key political themes dominated this period:

Wilhelm II’s Ambition for Germany to Become a Global Power

• The Kaiser was determined to make Germany a world power, competing with Britain and other European nations.
• His foreign policy, known as Weltpolitik (‘World Policy’), aimed to expand Germany’s empire and influence in international affairs.
• Germany took part in a naval arms race with Britain, leading to tensions in Europe. The expansion of the German navy, encouraged by Admiral Tirpitz's Navy Laws (1898–1912), was particularly controversial.
• Industrial growth and the expansion of the German military-industrial complex contributed to rivalries between European powers, which eventually led to the outbreak of war in 1914.

The Impact of Industrialisation and the Rise of Socialism

• Germany rapidly industrialised in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, becoming one of Europe’s most powerful economies.
• This economic growth led to urbanisation, with millions moving to cities to work in factories and heavy industries such as coal, steel, and chemicals.
• However, industrialisation also created social and economic problems, including poor working conditions, low wages, and inequality.
• These issues led to the rise of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), which championed workers' rights, social reform, and greater democracy.
• By 1912, the SPD had become the largest party in the Reichstag, despite opposition from the Kaiser and conservative elites.
• Before the war, pressure for democratic reforms was growing, though the Kaiser's authoritarian rule prevented significant political change.

Germany After the First World War: The Birth of the Weimar Republic

The First World War had a devastating impact on Germany. By 1918, Germany was on the brink of economic collapse, facing severe food shortages, political unrest, and military defeat.

The Abdication of the Kaiser and the End of the German Empire (1918–1919)

• On 9 November 1918, amid growing protests and strikes, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to the Netherlands.
• Germany was declared a republic, and a temporary government, led by Friedrich Ebert of the SPD, took control.
• In January 1919, a new democratic system was established under the Weimar Constitution, creating what became known as the Weimar Republic.

The Weimar Constitution and Democratic Reforms

The Weimar Republic introduced a bold experiment in democracy:

• All adult Germans, including women, gained the right to vote for the first time.
• The system of proportional representation ensured a wide range of political views were represented in the Reichstag.
• A President was elected by the people, rather than being a hereditary monarch.
• Civil rights such as freedom of speech and equality before the law were guaranteed.

Despite these progressive changes, Germany faced serious challenges in the early years of the Weimar Republic.

The Challenges Facing the Weimar Republic (1919–1924)

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Germany’s defeat in the war led to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which had severe consequences:

• Article 231 (‘The War Guilt Clause’) blamed Germany for the war, justifying harsh penalties.
• Germany had to pay crippling reparations (£6.6 billion), which devastated the economy.
• The German military was severely restricted—the army was limited to 100,000 men, and Germany was banned from having an air force or submarines.
• Germany lost 13% of its territory, including key industrial regions such as the Saarland and Alsace-Lorraine.

The treaty caused widespread resentment, with many Germans calling it a ‘Diktat’ (dictated peace). This undermined support for the Weimar government, which was blamed for accepting such humiliating terms.

Economic Crises and Hyperinflation (1923)

• In 1922, Germany struggled to pay reparations, leading France and Belgium to invade the Ruhr (Germany’s industrial heartland) in January 1923.
• In response, the German government encouraged passive resistance, but this worsened the economy.
• The government printed large amounts of money, causing hyperinflation—prices spiralled out of control, and the German mark became worthless.
• The middle class lost their savings, and workers' wages became useless almost overnight.

Political Instability and Attempts to Overthrow the Government

The Weimar Republic faced several attempts to overthrow it:

The Spartacist Uprising (January 1919) – A Communist revolt led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, which was crushed by the Freikorps (ex-soldiers supporting the government).

The Kapp Putsch (March 1920) – A right-wing military coup attempt led by Wolfgang Kapp, which briefly took control of Berlin but collapsed due to a general strike by workers.

The Munich Putsch (November 1923) – A failed attempt by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to overthrow the government in Bavaria. Hitler was arrested and imprisoned, but his trial gave him national recognition.

The Recovery of the Weimar Republic (1924–1929)

Despite these challenges, Germany began to recover under the leadership of Gustav Stresemann.

Economic Recovery

• Stresemann introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark, in 1924, which stabilised the economy.
• The Dawes Plan (1924), agreed with the United States, provided American loans to help Germany pay reparations and rebuild industry.
• By the late 1920s, Germany’s economy was stronger, and living standards improved.

Foreign Policy Successes

• Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926, improving its international status.
• The Locarno Pact (1925) helped ease tensions with France and Britain, securing Germany’s western borders.
• The Young Plan (1929) reduced reparations payments, easing economic pressure.

Cultural and Social Changes

• The 1920s saw a flourishing of art, literature, cinema, and music in Germany.
• The Bauhaus movement revolutionised architecture.
• Berlin became a centre for cabaret, jazz, and liberal ideas.
• Women gained greater social freedoms and more opportunities in work and politics.

The Fragility of Weimar Democracy

By the late 1920s, Germany appeared to be recovering. It was economically stronger, politically stable, and respected on the international stage. However, underlying weaknesses remained:

• Proportional representation led to weak coalition governments, making decisive leadership difficult.
• Many Germans still opposed democracy, preferring authoritarian rule.
• The economy depended on American loans, making it vulnerable to external shocks.

When the Great Depression hit in 1929, Germany’s fragile democracy was once again thrown into crisis, setting the stage for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.