Control in India, Canada, Australia, and Africa

This section explains Britain’s control in India, Canada, Australia, and Africa in the 19th Century. The 19th century marked a period of profound expansion and consolidation for the British Empire, but it also revealed the challenges of imperial rule. From the mutinies in India to the rebellions in Canada and the complex dynamics of African colonisation, Britain’s control over its territories required continuous adaptation. These developments laid the groundwork for both the zenith of British imperial power and the tensions that would eventually lead to the empire's decline in the 20th century.

India: From Company Rule to Direct British Control

During the 19th century, Britain's approach to governing India underwent significant changes as Parliament sought to curtail the autonomy of the East India Company (EIC) and address its inefficiencies and corruption.

• The Decline of the East India Company
  • By the late 18th century, the EIC was struggling with declining profits and accusations of mismanagement.
  • Warren Hastings, the EIC’s Governor-General, was forced to resign in 1784 and faced charges in Parliament for corruption and his harsh governance in India.
    • His administration had waged numerous wars against Indian princes and imposed high taxes, particularly in Bengal, leading to devastating famines.
    • Although Hastings was ultimately acquitted after a nine-year trial (1784–1796), his case highlighted the need for reform.
• Parliament’s Increasing Control:
  • The India Act of 1784 gave joint control of British India to the EIC and the British government.
  • From this point onward:
    • Governor-Generals were appointed by London and tasked with implementing Parliament’s policies in India.
    • Reforms in education, governance, and warfare were introduced, often disregarding Indian customs and traditions.
• The Great Rebellion of 1857
  • Indian soldiers, or sepoys, in the British army revolted due to grievances over cultural insensitivity, religious degradation, and poor treatment.
  • The rebellion, also known as the Indian Mutiny, led to a bloody conflict that shook British authority in India.
• The Government of India Act (1858)
  • In the aftermath, the British Parliament abolished the EIC and assumed direct control of India.
  • Viceroys were appointed to govern on behalf of the Crown, reporting to the newly created Secretary of State for India in London.
  • This marked the beginning of the British Raj, during which India became a vital part of Britain’s empire.

Canada: The Durham Report and Self-Government

• In 1837, rebellions broke out in Upper Canada (modern-day Ontario) and Lower Canada (modern-day Quebec).
  • The uprisings were driven by demands for greater local control and frustration with British rule.
• The British government dispatched Lord Durham in 1838 to investigate the causes of the unrest and propose solutions.
  • His Durham Report recommended merging Upper and Lower Canada into a single colony and granting local self-government to prevent further rebellion.
  • Initially ignored, these ideas gained traction by 1847, when the government sought to reduce the costs of administering the empire.
• By the mid-19th century, Britain had begun to grant local self-rule to its white settler colonies, setting the stage for Canadian independence in later years.

Australia: Penal Colonies and Migration

• Transportation of Convicts
  • To address rising crime and overpopulation in Britain, penal colonies were established in southeast Australia and Tasmania during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
  • Convicts sentenced to transportation were sent to these colonies, where they were expected to work and contribute to settlement efforts.
  • Once their sentences were served, many convicts stayed and built new lives, helping to establish thriving communities.
• Growth of Settlements
  • By the late 19th century, these penal colonies had evolved into significant settlements, attracting voluntary migration from Britain.
  • Australia’s fertile land and economic opportunities made it an appealing destination for British settlers, contributing to the colony’s rapid growth.

Africa: The Scramble for Colonies

• Early Interests
  • Britain’s involvement in Africa during the 18th century centred on gold and diamond mining, particularly in Southern Africa.
  • The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, a key route for trade with India, heightened British interest in securing control over the region.
• The Scramble for Africa (1885–1900)
  • European powers, including Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and Portugal, competed fiercely for African territory in the late 19th century.
  • To prevent open conflict, these nations convened the Berlin Conference of 1885, where they agreed that territorial claims would only be recognised if backed by physical occupation and administration.
• British Expansion
  • Britain rapidly expanded its colonial presence, securing vast territories across the continent, including Egypt, Sudan, South Africa, and parts of East and West Africa.
  • African resources and labour were exploited to fuel British industries and trade, though this often came at great cost to local populations.