The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)

This section explains the role of the Hundred Year’s War in shaping English national identity and setting the stage for England’s future as a global imperial power. During the reign of King Henry II (1154-1189), England became part of a vast continental European empire known as the Angevin Empire. This empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in Scotland to the Pyrenees Mountains, which form the natural border between modern-day France and Spain. However, Henry’s successors, particularly his sons King Richard I and King John, struggled to maintain control over these far-reaching territories, which were increasingly under threat from the French monarchy.

In 1204, King John suffered a major defeat in Normandy, a large territory that had been part of the Kingdom of England since the Norman Conquest of 1066. This loss marked the beginning of a gradual decline in England’s territorial holdings in France, and it would take over a century before English forces began to regain those territories.

The Hundred Years' War: 1337-1453

The Hundred Years’ War began in 1337, when King Philip VI of France confiscated most of the remaining English territories in France. Edward III, the King of England, refused to accept this and instead declared himself the rightful King of France, as he was the nephew of the recently deceased French king. Edward's claim to the French throne, based on his bloodline, sparked the outbreak of conflict in 1346, when he launched an invasion of France.

The Early Years: Battle of Crécy (1346)

King Edward III’s forces marched into Normandy but were significantly weakened by a devastating outbreak of the plague. Despite this setback, the English army managed to avoid a major engagement with the French forces. However, in August 1346, the English were eventually forced to make a stand, by the river Maye, where they were surrounded by a French army that vastly outnumbered them—by at least three to one.

At this critical juncture, the English army’s use of the longbow proved to be a decisive advantage. The longbow was incredibly powerful and had the ability to pierce the armour of knights and even take down their horses. In the Battle of Crécy, the English positioned themselves at the top of a hill, where they were able to rain down arrows upon the French forces as they struggled to climb the wet, slippery slope. The French cavalry, bogged down by the terrain, were rendered ineffective, and the English archers and foot soldiers inflicted heavy casualties.

The French forces suffered a crushing defeat, and the Battle of Crécy became a defining moment in the Hundred Years’ War. The tactics used in this battle were replicated in later confrontations, most famously at Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415), where English forces used similar strategies to devastating effect.

The Turning Point: Agincourt (1415)

By the early 15th century, the tide of the war seemed to be turning in favour of the English. In 1415, King Henry V of England achieved one of the most famous victories of the war at the Battle of Agincourt, where his army of just 6,000 men faced a French force of around 24,000. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the English used their longbowmen to great effect, causing massive casualties among the French.

The victory at Agincourt marked a significant turning point in the Hundred Years’ War. King Henry V’s forces, boosted by this success, began to regain English territory in France, and Henry sought to consolidate his position through diplomatic means. In 1420, he forced King Charles VI of France to recognise him as the rightful heir to the French throne and secured his marriage to Charles’s daughter, Catherine of Valois, thus strengthening England’s dynastic claim to France.

The Decline of English Power: The Role of Joan of Arc and the French Resurgence

However, King Henry V’s untimely death in 1422 cast doubt on England’s claim to the French throne. His infant son, Henry VI, was crowned King of France, but many in France rallied behind Charles VI’s son, the Dauphin, who would go on to be crowned King Charles VII in 1422.

One of the most significant factors in the French resurgence was the involvement of Joan of Arc, a peasant girl who claimed to have received divine visions instructing her to support Charles VII and drive the English out of France. Joan’s military leadership and inspiring presence helped to turn the tide in France’s favour, particularly during the Siege of Orléans in 1429, where French forces achieved a crucial victory.

Joan's success energised the French cause, and the political situation in France shifted in favour of Charles VII. The Burgundians, a powerful faction that had been allied with the English, eventually switched sides and pledged their support to Charles VII, further weakening England’s position.

By 1453, after decades of fighting, the English were driven out of their last remaining strongholds in southwestern France, marking the end of the Hundred Years’ War. The war had lasting consequences for both England and France, fundamentally altering the political landscape of medieval Europe.

The Development of English Identity

The Hundred Years’ War was instrumental in fostering a sense of English national identity. Early in the conflict, England celebrated its victories at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, which were seen as symbols of English military prowess and national pride. Over time, these victories helped unite the English people in the face of a common enemy.

As the war progressed, the concept of "Englishness" began to take hold not only in England but also in France, where the English were seen as foreign invaders. This emerging English identity contributed to the cohesion of English forces in France, even as the conflict became increasingly unpopular back home. The eventual French victory was not only a military triumph but also a reflection of the growing sense of French national unity, particularly under the leadership of Charles VII and the inspiration provided by Joan of Arc.

The End of English Presence in France

In 1558, over a century after the end of the Hundred Years’ War, England’s last possession in France, the port of Calais, was captured by the French. This marked the end of a 500-year period of English territorial presence in France, beginning with the Norman Conquest of 1066. With the loss of Calais, England’s attention shifted away from continental Europe and towards new imperial ambitions across the Atlantic.

The rise of Spain and Portugal as powerful maritime nations, exploiting the resources of the Americas, prompted England to focus its efforts on building a new empire in North America and the Caribbean during the early 16th century. The shifting focus towards overseas expansion marked the beginning of a new phase in England's imperial history, as the country sought to establish itself as a global power in the New World.

Conclusion

The Hundred Years’ War was a defining conflict in the history of both England and France. Although England initially emerged victorious in the early battles, the eventual French resurgence led by figures like Joan of Arc ultimately resulted in the loss of English territories in France. However, the war played a key role in shaping English national identity and set the stage for England’s future as a global imperial power. The long and costly conflict not only changed the political landscape of Europe but also had profound consequences for the development of both English and French national consciousness.