African Nationalism: Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta

This section explains African Nationalism and the roles of Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta. Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta symbolised the broader struggle for independence across Africa. Both leaders were deeply influenced by pan-Africanism, using their experiences abroad to galvanise their people at home. While their methods and contexts varied, their leadership helped to dismantle European imperial rule and inspired a wave of decolonisation that reshaped the African continent.

Pan-Africanism and the Rise of African Nationalism

The abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the emancipation of enslaved people in the 19th century marked a turning point for people of African descent in the Americas. In the United States, African Americans began to campaign for equality and self-determination, leading to the growth of ideas that resonated across the African diaspora. One of these was pan-Africanism, a belief in solidarity among people of African descent worldwide.

Prominent figures in the pan-Africanist movement included Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican political leader, and W.E.B. Du Bois, an African-American historian and civil rights activist. Both organised movements to promote unity and the right to self-determination for African people, both within colonial empires and in the broader African diaspora.

In 1945, the Fifth Pan-African Congress was held in Manchester, Britain. It was chaired by Amy Ashwood Garvey, Marcus Garvey’s first wife, with W.E.B. Du Bois serving as a delegate. The conference attracted key African nationalist figures, including Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast (later Ghana) and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya. The congress demanded an end to colonial rule and racial discrimination, inspiring many leaders to return to their homelands and build independence movements.

The Growth of African Nationalism

In the post-war period, African nationalism gained momentum across the continent, driven by the desire for self-rule and the injustices of colonial domination. This period saw the rise of leaders who would guide their nations to independence. However, South Africa remained an exception, as its powerful white minority government entrenched a system of apartheid.

In 1948, South Africa’s National Party came to power, introducing apartheid laws that segregated the population and stripped Black South Africans of political and civil rights. Attempts to dismantle apartheid were met with brutal suppression. In 1960, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan delivered his famous "wind of change" speech in Cape Town, warning South Africa’s government that the tide of nationalism across the continent was unstoppable. When the South African government ignored these warnings, Britain and other nations supported South Africa’s expulsion from the Commonwealth.

Kwame Nkrumah

Kwame Nkrumah was a leading figure in the struggle for independence in the British colony of the Gold Coast, West Africa. His journey towards African nationalism was shaped by his education and experiences abroad.

• 1930s: While studying at Lincoln University in the USA, Nkrumah was inspired by the activism of African Americans and began exploring socialist ideas that emphasised equality and anti-colonialism.
• 1945: Nkrumah came to Britain after World War II to work with African students in London and was a key organiser of the Pan-African Congress in Manchester.

Upon returning to the Gold Coast, Nkrumah became a driving force for immediate independence:

• 1947: Nkrumah joined the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), which advocated for gradual reforms under British rule. However, he grew frustrated with their cautious approach.
• 1949: Nkrumah broke away to form the Convention People’s Party (CPP), demanding immediate independence. His grassroots campaigns gained widespread support among ordinary people.
• 1951: The CPP won the colony’s first major elections. Nkrumah was appointed Leader of Government Business, effectively making him Prime Minister, though the Gold Coast remained under British control.
• 1957: After years of negotiations, Britain granted independence to the Gold Coast, which was renamed Ghana. Nkrumah became its first Prime Minister, making Ghana the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence.
• 1960: Nkrumah became Ghana’s first President and published his autobiography, Ghana, solidifying his position as a leading voice for African liberation.

Nkrumah also advocated for the unification of Africa and inspired other nationalist movements across the continent.

Jomo Kenyatta

Jomo Kenyatta emerged as a prominent nationalist leader in the British colony of Kenya, East Africa. His early exposure to African nationalism came through his studies and political work in Britain:

• 1938: Kenyatta published his seminal book, Facing Mount Kenya, which explored traditional Kikuyu culture and the injustices of British colonial rule.
• 1945: He participated in the Pan-African Congress in Manchester, working alongside other future African leaders.

After returning to Kenya, Kenyatta became a central figure in the independence movement:

• 1946: Kenyatta became head of the Kenya Teachers’ College and took on a leadership role in African political activism.
• 1947: He was elected leader of the Kenya African Union (KAU), the main African political party. Kenyatta travelled across Kenya advocating for independence and the return of land seized by European settlers.

The Mau Mau Rebellion and Kenyatta’s Imprisonment

In 1951, the Mau Mau rebellion began—a militant uprising against British rule by a secret society aiming to force the British out of Kenya. Though Kenyatta was not directly involved, he was arrested in 1952 under accusations of leading the revolt.

• 1953: Kenyatta was convicted on false evidence and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment. His imprisonment became a rallying point for the independence movement.
• 1959: Outrage over British atrocities, such as the killing of 11 detainees at the Hola detention camp, increased pressure on Britain to engage with Kenyan leaders. Kenyatta was transferred to house detention.
• 1961: Kenyatta was released and began negotiating with Britain for Kenya’s independence.

Kenya’s Independence

• 1963: Kenya achieved independence from Britain, and Kenyatta became its first Prime Minister. Under his leadership, Kenya embarked on a journey of nation-building, though tensions over land and ethnic divisions persisted.