The Provisions of Oxford

The section explains the provisions of Oxford and the role of Simon de Montford. The Provisions of Oxford were a pivotal moment in English history, marking a dramatic clash between King Henry III and a powerful group of barons led by Simon de Montfort. Unlike the earlier rebellion against King John, which resulted in the signing of the Magna Carta, the rebellion against Henry III was organised around a single, determined leader: Simon de Montfort. De Montfort not only led armies into battle but also succeeded in defeating the king, capturing both Henry and his son, Edward. This period is defined by the struggle for power between the monarchy and the barons, particularly concerning issues of governance, taxation, and foreign influence.

Who Was Simon de Montfort?

• Simon de Montfort was the 6th Earl of Leicester and a key figure in the rebellion against Henry III.
• Born in France around 1208, de Montfort became an influential English nobleman after marrying Eleanor of England, the sister of King Henry III.
• Though French by birth, de Montfort became a leading figure in English politics, particularly in the conflict with King Henry III, which culminated in the Provisions of Oxford and the Second Barons' War.

What Caused the Provisions of Oxford?

The Provisions of Oxford were the result of a combination of factors, primarily the growing tension between the barons and King Henry III. A key turning point was the falling out between Simon de Montfort and Henry III, which highlighted the deepening rift between the king and the barons.

The Falling Out Between De Montfort and the King

• 1248: Henry III sent Simon de Montfort to France to lead a campaign to gain control of Brittany and Gascony, regions vital to English interests. De Montfort was ruthless in his tactics, but he achieved success in these territories.
• Enquiry into De Montfort’s Conduct: Despite his successes, de Montfort’s harsh methods caused concern, and Henry launched an enquiry into his conduct. The investigation cleared de Montfort of any wrongdoing, but Henry, suspicious of his power, replaced him with Prince Edward (Henry’s son) as the leader of the campaign.
• Betrayal and Unrest: De Montfort felt betrayed by Henry’s decision and his treatment. Feeling unjustly sidelined, he returned to England, where he became the leader of a growing faction of discontented barons. This marked the beginning of his formal opposition to the king.

The Barons Lose Patience

By 1254, relations between Henry III and the barons had reached a breaking point. Several key factors contributed to this growing discontent:

• Papal Demands for Funds: The Pope requested additional funds to finance his wars in Europe, further draining England’s resources.
• Henry’s Financial Needs: Henry also needed money to secure his lands in France, and his constant demands for funds added to the frustration of the barons.
• Taxation and Foreign Influence: The barons were especially angered by the increasing taxes, which they felt were unjust. They also resented the increasing influence of foreign (mainly French) advisers at Henry’s court, whom they viewed as ‘aliens’ who had no loyalty to England.

Features of the Provisions of Oxford

In 1258, faced with the growing threat of rebellion, Henry III was forced to meet with the Great Council of Barons to address their demands. These demands were put forward as the Provisions of Oxford, led by Simon de Montfort.

• Key Features of the Provisions:
• The Authority of the Council of Fifteen: The Provisions placed Henry III under the authority of a new Council of Fifteen, which would have the power to make major decisions in the governance of England. This reduced the king’s direct control over the kingdom.
• Reforms in Governance: The Provisions aimed to eliminate corruption, particularly the influence of foreign advisers, by limiting their roles in the royal administration.
• Baronial Oversight: The barons were given more power over the king’s actions, ensuring that royal policies would be subject to baronial approval.
• Revocation of Royal Decisions: Any decisions made by the king that went against the interests of the barons could be reversed by the Council.

Henry reluctantly agreed to the Provisions, though it was clear that he did so under duress, fearing the political ramifications of outright defiance.

The Second Barons’ War

Despite the initial success of the Provisions, tensions quickly escalated. There were divisions among the barons about the scope and effectiveness of the Provisions, leading to further conflict and the eventual outbreak of the Second Barons' War in 1264.

Disagreements Among the Barons

• Divisions within the Barons: While the removal of French advisers was widely popular, there were disagreements among the barons about other aspects of the Provisions. Some of the older, more conservative barons felt that the Provisions went too far in reducing the king’s power, while younger barons were disappointed that they were not given positions on the new Great Council.
• Henry’s Opportunity: With the barons divided, Henry III saw an opportunity to regain his power. In 1261, he wrote to the Pope, requesting that the Provisions of Oxford be annulled. The Pope agreed, and Henry filled the Great Council with his own supporters, effectively nullifying the barons’ influence.

The Battle of Lewes

In response to Henry’s defiance, Simon de Montfort rallied the barons once again. In 1264, de Montfort returned from exile in France and led an army to confront Henry III in what became known as the Second Barons' War.

• Causes of the War: The war was driven by several key factors:
  • Henry’s refusal to fully implement the Provisions of Oxford.
  • The continued failure of English military campaigns in France.
  • The heavy taxation demanded by Henry.
  • The increasing influence of French advisors at court, which further alienated the English barons.
• The Battle of Lewes (1264): The conflict culminated in the Battle of Lewes, where Simon de Montfort and his forces decisively defeated Henry’s army. Both Henry III and his son, Prince Edward, were captured and taken prisoner by de Montfort’s forces.

The Significance of the Provisions of Oxford and the Second Barons' War

• The Provisions of Oxford were an attempt to curb the king’s power and give more authority to the barons and the Church. However, their implementation was short-lived, and the conflict between the monarchy and the barons continued to simmer.
• The Second Barons' War demonstrated the deep divisions within the English aristocracy and highlighted the tension between the power of the monarchy and the growing influence of the barons.
• Although the Provisions of Oxford did not last in the long term, they represented a significant moment in the development of English constitutional law, as they aimed to limit the absolute power of the monarchy and establish a more balanced form of governance.