Families and Households Quiz

Functionalists such as Parsons and Murdock argue that the family performs vital functions that contribute to the stability of society. Murdock identifies four key functions: sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational. Parsons adds that the family is essential for the primary socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult personalities. The family acts as a ‘warm bath’ for individuals, providing emotional support that sustains the social system. However, critics argue that this view is overly idealised and neglects diversity and conflict within families.

Marxists view the family as serving capitalist interests. Engels argued that the monogamous nuclear family developed to ensure the inheritance of private property. Zaretsky contended that the family provides emotional support for workers, helping to maintain labour power. The family also acts as a unit of consumption, encouraging the pursuit of material goods. However, feminists criticise Marxists for focusing too heavily on class and ignoring patriarchy, while functionalists argue that the family benefits both individuals and society, not just capitalism.

Feminists argue that traditional gender roles are socially constructed and serve to maintain male dominance. Liberal feminists such as Young and Willmott highlight progress towards greater equality, while radical feminists like Delphy and Leonard see the family as a patriarchal institution exploiting women’s unpaid labour. Marxist feminists, including Ansley, view women as the “takers of s**t” who absorb male frustration from capitalist exploitation. However, some postmodern feminists argue that gender roles have diversified, and individuals now have more choice in family arrangements.

Marriage rates have declined due to secularisation, greater female independence, the rise of individualism, and changing social attitudes towards cohabitation. Economic factors, such as the high cost of weddings and housing, also deter marriage. Cohabitation has become more socially acceptable, while legal changes like easier divorce have reduced the permanence of marriage. However, marriage remains valued symbolically, with many couples marrying later in life or after cohabiting.

Divorce rates have risen due to legal changes (e.g., the 1969 Divorce Reform Act), changing gender roles, and reduced stigma. Women’s economic independence means they are less likely to remain in unhappy marriages. Functionalists view divorce as reflecting higher expectations of marriage, while feminists see it as evidence of women’s liberation. However, the New Right argue that high divorce rates undermine social stability and lead to a “broken society”.

Sociologists such as the Rapoports identify multiple forms of family diversity, including organisational, cultural, class, life stage, and generational differences. The increase in lone-parent families, same-sex households, and reconstituted families reflects wider social changes such as secularisation, feminism, and globalisation. Postmodernists like Stacey argue that family life is now fluid and based on choice. However, the New Right see family diversity as a decline in traditional values.

State policies shape family life through taxation, welfare, and childcare support. Functionalists argue policies help families perform their functions effectively, while the New Right claim that welfare policies encourage dependency and undermine the nuclear family. Feminists note that policies often assume a male breadwinner model, disadvantaging women. More recently, policies promoting shared parental leave and same-sex marriage reflect growing recognition of diversity.

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim argue that individuals now make more personal choices regarding family, work, and relationships, leading to the “individualisation thesis”. Traditional life stages have become less predictable; people may delay marriage, live alone, or remain child-free. This reflects a shift from fixed social norms to self-constructed biographies. However, critics argue that choices are still shaped by class, gender, and ethnicity.

Functionalists like Parsons suggest that gendered division of labour is based on natural differences. In contrast, feminists argue it reflects inequality and patriarchy. Oakley found that domestic labour remains largely female-dominated despite claims of a ‘march of progress’. More recent studies, such as those by Crompton and Lyonette, indicate that while men do more housework, women still perform the majority, especially emotional labour. The concept of the “dual burden” and “triple shift” highlight persistent inequalities.

Feminists argue that power in families is unequal, with men often controlling financial and decision-making resources. Pahl and Vogler identified two systems: the allowance system and pooling. Radical feminists highlight domestic violence as an expression of patriarchal power. Functionalists, however, see power as shared or negotiated for family harmony. Postmodernists suggest that relationships are increasingly based on negotiation and equality, especially among younger couples.

Aries argued that childhood is a social construct, showing that in pre-industrial society, children were treated as ‘mini adults’. The modern notion of childhood as a protected stage emerged with industrialisation. Child-centredness has grown, but Postman argues that media blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood. Jenks, however, suggests that concern for children has intensified in postmodern society, making childhood more controlled but still significant.

Birth and death rates have declined due to improved healthcare, contraception, rising living standards, and women’s changing roles. The decline in infant mortality reduced the need for large families. Longer life expectancy has led to an ageing population. While functionalists view these changes as social progress, others highlight challenges such as the strain on healthcare and pensions.

An ageing population increases dependency ratios and pressures on healthcare and pensions. However, older people also contribute through volunteering, childcare, and consumer spending. Hirsch suggests policies must adapt, including longer working lives and flexible housing. While some see the ageing population as a burden, others highlight intergenerational solidarity and the “silver economy”.

Migration has created ethnically diverse family forms, including extended and transnational families. Globalisation promotes cultural exchange and new values about gender, marriage, and parenthood. Vertovec refers to “super-diversity”, where family patterns are shaped by global connections. However, some argue that migration can cause intergenerational tensions and challenges in maintaining traditional cultural norms.

Postmodernists argue that there is no single dominant family type; instead, individuals construct families based on choice and identity. Giddens describes the “pure relationship” based on intimacy and satisfaction rather than duty. Beck’s “risk society” highlights uncertainty in modern relationships. Critics argue that postmodernism exaggerates choice, ignoring structural inequalities like class and gender that still constrain decisions.